i;::il;ji::iri!iii;iii;i;i{i!i!i;ii;i;:Ai^i!):i;i;!!:!)::i:J:-^ 



'jfKiff 





(lass U STj I faSL-R- 



Book. 






PRESENTED BV 



SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS 

Published in conjunction with 
THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL 



Vol. Ill 

No. 3 



June, 1921 
Whole No. 15 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL 

CURRICULA IN THE NORTH 

CENTRAL STATES FROM 

I860 TO 1918 



By 



JOHN ELBERT STOUT 




THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 

CHICAGO ILLINOIS 



Mono!»T»'ph 



PUBLICATIONS EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL 

OF EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY 

OF CHICAGO 



JOINT EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 

CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD, Chairman 
JOHN FRANKLIN BOBBITT 
SAMUEL CHESTER PARKER 
HENRY CLINTON MORRISON 

Articles and editorials of the Articles and editorials of the 

School Review Elementary School Journal 

ROLLO LA VERNE LYMAN FRANK NUGENT FREEMAN 

MORTON SNYDER HARRY ORRIN GILLET 

Reviews Supplementary Educational Monographs 

GLTY' THOMAS BUSWELL WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY 

ROLLA MILTON TRY'ON MARCUS WILSON JERNEGAN 



SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE ON 
CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS 

THE SCHOOL REVIEW 

THE School Review is an open forum for the discussion of progressive movements 
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THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL 

THE Elementary School Journal emphasizes progressive movements in elementary 
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THE SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS 

THE Supplementary Educational Monographs present a body of scientific and practical 
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SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS 

Published in conjunction with 
THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL 

Vol. Ill June, 1921 

No. 3 " Whole No. 15 



The Development of High-School Curricula 

in the North Central States 

from 1860 to 1918 



The Development of High-School 

Curricula in the North Central 

States from 1860 to 1918 



By 
JOHN ELBERT STOUT 

A DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED TO THE FACOLTT 

OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OP AKTS AND LITERATUEB 

IN CANDIUACy FOB THE DEGREE OF 

DOOroK OF t-UILOSOPHY 




THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 






Copyright 1921 By 
THEf UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



Published June, 1921 

Univsrsity 
S£P 10 m\ 



PREFACE 

The purpose of this study is to trace the development of high- 
school curricula in the North Central states from 1860 to 1900. 
■i An introductory chapter presents a brief account of the early high 

schools. It furnishes a background for a treatment of the develop- 
ment of curricula in the geographical area indicated in the title. 

The monograph is divided into three Parts. Parts I and II are 
devoted to the period 1860-1900. Part III covers the period 1900- 
1918. Part I contains a treatment of subjects and their organiza- 
tion into curricula. Part II is devoted to the subject matter of the 
various fields and subjects. Part III deals with subjects and 
subject matter, a chapter being devoted to each. 

A few authorities are cited but tabulations and discussions are 
for the most part based upon data secured from original sources. 
These sources are chiefly published courses of study and textbooks. 
Some of the material was made available for use by the libraries of 
the University of Chicago, the University of Illinois, Oberlin College, 
and Cornell College. A considerable portion of it, however, was 
widely scattered, particularly the published courses of study, and 
had to be collected from the schools throughout the area. 

In selecting curricula for purposes of display and tabulation, 
an effort was made to secure those which would fairly represent 
prevailing practices. Small schools have somewhat less proportional 
representation than medium size and large ones for the reason that 
copies of curricula used in the small school have in many cases not 
been preser^-ed. Textbooks for reference have been selected on 
the basis of their general use as shown by lists displayed in published 
courses of study. 

For purposes of tabulation, the period 1860-1900 has been 
divided into eight units of five years each. In Part III two units 
were selected, 1906-1910 and 1911-1918. This has been done to 
determine as accurately as possible the dates at which significant 
changes took place. 

In the treatment of subjects, organization of curricula and 
subject matter, the facts are presented as revealed by the sources 
consulted. No attempt has been made to give connected accounts 
of particular schools. Peculiarities of individual schools have been 
noted but conclusions deal with general practices and tendencies. 

J. E. S. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Early High-School Movement 1 

Establishment of the English Classical School, 1821. Influ- 
ence of this school. Its purpose. Regulations. Course of study. 
Changes in the course of study. Lowell, Massachusetts, High 
School. Course of study. Establishment of the New Haven, Con- 
necticut, High School. Course of study. Course of study, Balti- 
more, Mar>-land, High School. Establishment of Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania, High School. Course of study. Comparison of 
courses of study of the Springfield, Massachusetts, and Baltimore, 
Maryland, High Schools. 

PART I. DEVELOPMENT IN SUBJECTS AND IN CURRICULA 
ORGANIZATION 

II. SiMiL.\RiTY IN General Plan and Lack of Uniformity in De- 
tails OF Curricula 16 

Early high schools in the North Central section. The two aims 
of high-school instruction. Influence of the Boston school. Com- 
parison of courses of study of Baltimore, Maryland, and Columbus, 
Ohio. Lack of uniformity. Explanation of tables. 

III. Representative Courses of Study 20 

Details of courses of study. Lack of uniformity shown. Com- 
parison of courses of study of Madison, Wisconsin, and Cincinnati, 
Ohio. Of Auburn, Indiana, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Of James- 
town, Ohio and Appleton, Wisconsin. Further comparison of 
courses. 

IV. Number of Courses Offered; Titles and Organiz.\tion 46 

Table I. Courses vary in length and number. Curricula or- 
ganization. The two aims again. Lack of definite standards. Lack 
of commercial and industrial influences. Titles lack definite mean- 
ing. Confusion in use of terms. Few titles furnish definite informa- 
tion. Use of the word "English." Of other titles. Order in which 
subjects appear in curricula. Mathematics. English. Science. 
The social studies. Foreign language. Commercial subjects. 
Miscellaneous subjects. Units of time in organization. Three-term 
year prevalent. Growth of the semester plan. Practice of offering 
a subject not less than half-year preceded adoption of semester 
plan. 

V. Subjects Included in Curricula 62 

Tables H to I X inclusive. Number of schools offering each sub- 
ject for the several periods. Wide range of subjects offered in a few 
schools. Fewer subjects than indicated in English due to lack of 
uniformity in terminology. Same true to some extent in the social 



CONTENTS 



PACE 



studies. Subjects offered not included at present in high-school 
curricula. Some schools offered little work in English. Wide 
range in science. Prevalence of short courses. Fewer subjects and 
longer time devoted to each was the later practice. Social studies 
received less attention than at present time. Increased attention 
to the field toward the close. Range of work in foreign language 
changed little. Little work offered in commercial subjects. In- 
creased attention in a few schools after 1890. Miscellaneous sub- 
jects relatively numerous in the earlier years. Rapid decline after 
1870. Manual training offered in a few schools after 1890. 

VI. Constants .\nd Variables 71 

Table X. Mathematics, English and science were constants. 
Social studies a constant after 1870. Increase in number of schools 
offering foreign language. Algebra and geometry constants. Arith- 
metic ne.\t in importance. Trigonometry declines. Analytics and 
Calculus disappear after 1885. Literature is a constant after 1885. 
Grammar a variable and declined in importance. Status of composi- 
tion uncertain. Some increase of attention given to it. Rhetoric 
ranked ne.xt to literature. Little change evident. Physics prac- 
tically a constant. Physiology ranked second, followed by botany. 
Physical geography and chemistry have equal rank. Astronomy 
and geology decline in importance. Status of European history not 
easily determined. Probably a constant throughout. United States 
history increases in importance. Same true of civics. Political econ- 
omy gains, though relatively unimportant. Latin gains and is 
practically a constant at the close. Greek unimportant and de- 
clines. German remains unchanged while French declines. Book- 
keeping only commercial subject of importance until 1890. 

VII. Variations IN Time Devoted TO Fields AND Subjects 80 

Tables Xl-XVlII show variations in time devoted to fields. 
Table XIX show time in years devoted to each field. Tables XX- 
XXVI I show time in years devoted to each subject. Lack of uni- 
formity in time devoted to fields. Wide range shown. Lack of 
standardization. Little change in average time devoted to mathe- 
matics. Small increase in time devoted to arithmetic. Consider- 
able increase in algebra. Some increase in geometry. Increase of 
one year in English. Little change in grammar, composition, or 
rhetoric. Time devoted to literature increased nearly one year. 
Time devoted to science remained practically unchanged. Increase 
in time devoted to physics. Only slight changes in the other 
sciences. Time devoted to the social subjects increased approxi- 
mately one year. Little change except in European history. 
Uncertainty concerning time devoted to foreign language owing to 
lack of exact data. Probably little change in time devoted to the 
field. Increase in time devoted to the commercial subjects near the 
close. Required subjects and electives. Algebra and geometry 
required subjects. English not required in all the earlier classical 



CONTENTS ix 

CHAPTER P'^GE 

courses. Later required in all courses. Literature less frequently 
required than other English subjects. Physics usually required. Of 
the other science subjects, botany, physical geography, and phy- 
siology more frequently required. European history and United 
States history more frequently required than other social studies. 
If a foreign language was required, it was invariably Latin. Ab- 
sence of generally accepted criteria for determining required sub- 
jects and electives. Influence of college entrance requirements. 
Lack of uniformity in the matter of required subjects and electives. 

VIII. Influenxe of Size and Location of Schools 109 

Large and small schools. The latter offered a wider range of 
subjects. Neither rural nor urban conditions seem to have influ- 
enced curricula. Comparison of city and small town school. In- 
fluence of locality. Schools in different states compared. Individ- 
ual differences in schools pronounced. Changes in curricula of 
individual schools. Examples of changes. 

PART. II. CONDITIONS AND CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 

IX. Introductory 117 

Importance of subject-matter. Considered from two stand- 
points. Fields and subjects differ widely. Mathematics. Little 
change in amount and character of subject-matter in mathematics. 
Decline in importance of higher mathematics. Changes more 
pronounced in arithmetic than in algebra or geometry. 

X. English 123 

Important changes in this field. Changes in college entrance 
requirements. Little change in grammar. Considerable change in 
rhetoric. Two stages in the teaching of rhetoric. Most important 
change in literature. Three stages in the teaching of literature. 
Wide range of short selections marks the first stage. Second stage 
characterized by emphasis upon biography and history of literature. 
Barren character of this work. Third stage marked by emphasis 
upon classics. Entrance requirements show growth in importance of 
this class of material. Examples of classics used. Relative impor- 
tance of masterpieces. Long list of titles of selections used in var- 
ious schools. Two emphases employed in the teaching of classics. 
Early composition work informal. Work carried on in connection 
with general school exercises. Relation of composition to grammar; 
to rhetoric; to literature. Emphasis upon grammatical and rhetor- 
ical forms. 

XI. The Sciences 147 

Considerable confusion concerning character of material due to 
persistence of old textbooks. Changes in character of subject- 
matter due to different aims. Religious aim. Knowledge aim. Dis- 
ciplinary aim. Subject-matter of natural history. Of zoology. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PACE 

Aims in teaching zoology. Botany a premedical study. Later 
emphasis upon anatomical structure. An occasional reference to the 
religious aspect of the subject. Emphasis upon plant morphology. 
Slight emphasis at the close upon agricultural and horticultural 
aspects of the subject. Religious aim in teaching physiology. 
Emphasis upon anatomy. Increasing attention to hygiene. Two 
aims controlled in teaching physics. Knowledge aim. Disciplinary 
aim. Earlier books emphasized general information. Later texts 
emphasized formal aspects of the subject. Influence of the dis- 
ciplinary aim. Growth of laboratory work. Changes in chemistry 
similar to those in physics. Laboratory work began earlier. Earlier 
texts emphasized the practical aspect of the subject. Influence of 
the evolutionary point of view. Subject-matter in physical geog- 
raphy practically unchanged until near the close. Emphasis upon 
general information. Early tests were compendiums. Later ones 
emphasized the study of the earth as the home of man. 

XII. The Soci.al Studies 174 

European history received chief attention. Emphasis upon 
ancient history. Political history emphasized. Much attention 
given to chronologj'. Some attention to social aspect of history 
after 1880. Movement not general. Emphasis upon industrial and 
commercial aspects of the subject had gained little momentum even 
at the close. Textbooks in United States history characterized by 
emphasis upon wars. After 1870 the texts give some attention to 
life of the people. Political and military events continue to pre- 
dominate. Civics teaching falls into two periods. The first is 
characterized by emphasis upon the constitutional aspect of the 
subject. Texts consist largely of analyses of constitutions. The 
second period is marked by emphasis upon local government. Func- 
tions of government receive more attention. Two periods in the 
teaching of political economy. The first is marked by stress upon 
the philosophical aspect of the subject. Theoretical principles 
emphasized. Later texts lay more stress upon the application of 
principles. Some attention given to economic history. 

XIII. Foreign Language and Miscellaneous Sudjects 190 

Little change in subject-matter in this field. Grammatical 
method prevailed. Little change in first-year Latin. Practically 
no change in other years. Modern languages have a history very 
similar to that of Latin. Emphasis upon grammar. Commercial 
work chiefly bookkeeping. Stenography and typewriting intro- 
duced near the close. Manual training received some attention 
near the close. Drawing received considerable attention. Wood- 
work. Little work in iron. 



CONTENTS xi 

CHAPTER PACE 

PART III. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 

XIV. Organization of Curricula and Range of Subjects 197 

Tendencies at close of the nineteenth century. Marked 
changes since 1910. Enlarged scope of secondary education. The 
junior high school and junior college. Typical junior high-school 
curricula. Curricula organization. Table XXVIII. Tendency 
shows increased attempt to meet needs of various pupil groups. 
Curricula titles. Plans of organization. Typical four-year cur- 
ricula. Tables XXIX-XXX. Relative frequency of subjects and 
fields offered. Table XXXI. Constants and variables. Required 
subjects and electives. Influence of size and location of schools. 

XV. Changes in Subject-M.a.tter 228 

Changes in subject-matter since 1900. General character of 
these changes. Changes in mathematics. New plan of organiza- 
tion. "Unified" mathematics. Changes in subject and organiza- 
tion of English. Tendency to eliminate traditional courses. Intro- 
duction of unified courses. Increase in use of current literature. 
Growth of "general" science since 1900. Lack of agreement in 
character of subject-matter and organization of general science 
texts. Changes in subject-matter of the various sciences. Less 
emphasis on the old type of scientific training. Important changes 
in the social studies. Emphasis being placed on industrial and 
commercial material. Recent texts emphasize the functional 
aspects of the subject. New plan of organization of material in the 
field of social studies. Texts similar in plan to unified mathematics 
and English and general science coming into use. 

XVI. Summary 249 

Appendix 261 

Tables A— J 262 

Bibliography 292 

Index 317 



INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER I 
THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 

The English Classical School was established in Boston in 1821. 
Later it was called the English High School. This school was the 
first of the type of schools which constitutes the chief means of 
secondary education in this country' and it no doubt exercised 
considerable influence upon the high schools established subse- 
quently in Massachusetts and elsewhere. It is therefore thought 
desirable to set forth the aim which dominated this school and to 
trace in some detail the early development of the curriculum. 

It should not be understood that the plan of the Boston school 
was followed in detail. The fact is, it was not.^ But this school 
led in a movement which resulted in public secondary education, 
and its aim became one of the two outstanding aims dominating 
the high schools since that time.' 

At a meeting of the School Committee of Boston in October, 
1820, a resolution was introduced relating to the establishment of 
an English Classical School. The resolution was referred to a 
subcommittee which reported favorably for the establishment of 
such a school, and the report was adopted by the School Committee. 
In January, 1821, a town meeting was held at which the plan was 
approved with only three dissenting votes. The report of the 
subcommittee is set forth in E. E. Brown's well-known work. 

The mode of education now adopted, and the branches of knowledge taught 
at our English grammar schools, are not sufficiently extensive nor otherwise 
calculated to bring the powers of the mind into operation to qualify youth to 
fill usefully and respectably many of those stations, both public and private, in 
which he may be placed. A parent who wishes to give a child an education that 
shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence in his 
profession, whether Mercantile or Mechanical, is under the necessity of giving 
him a different education from any which our public schools can now furnish. 
Hence, many children are separated from their parents and sent to private 

* In 1915 there were 11,674 public and 2,248 private secondary schools. (Report United State 
Commissioner of Education, 1916, II, 447.) 

' Cf. pp. 20.42; also Appendix, Tables A-H. 

> Cf. pp. 6, 10, 13, 14; also Tables I and XXVIII. 



2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

academies in this vicinity to acquire that instruction which cannot be obtained 
at the public seminaries. Thus, many parents who contribute largely to the 
support of these institutions are subjected to heavy expense for the same object 
in other towns.' 

The committee, for these and many other weighty considerations that might 
be offered, and in order to render the present system of public education more 
nearly perfect, are of the opinion that an additional school is required. They 
therefore recommend the founding of a Seminary which shall be called the Eng- 
lish Classical School, and submit the following as a general outline of a plan for 
its organization and of the courses of studies to be pursued.^ 

In the report of the School Committee, "Regulations of the 
School Committee of the City of Boston,"' is found the following: 

This school is situated in Derne Street. It has been instituted, at the publick 
expense, with the express design of furnishing the young men of this city, who 
are not intended for a collegiate course of study and who have derived the usual 
advantages of the other publick schools, with the means of completing a good 
English education, to fit them for active life, or qualify them for eminence in 
private or publick stations. Here are enjoyed, especially, the best instructions 
in the elements of Mathematicks and Natural Philosophy, with their application 
to the Sciences and Arts, in Grammar, Rhetorick, and Belles-Lettres, in Moral 
Philosophy and in History, Natural and Civil. This establishment is furnished 
with a very valuable mathematical and philosophical apparatus for the purposes 
of experiment and illustration. 

"In addition to the common Regulations Sect. 2 Chap. 1 the following are 
required to be observed in this school: 

1. No boy shall be admitted, as a member of the English High School, under 
the age of 12. 

2. Boys shall be examined for admission into this school only once a year, 
viz., on the Friday and Saturday following the semiannual visitation and exhibi- 
tion of the school in August. 

3. Candidates for examination shall produce from the masters of the schools 
they last attended, certificates of good character and presumed qualifications 
for admission into this school. It shall, however, be the duty of the master of it, 
to institute a personal examination of them in Reading, Writing, English Gram- 
mar, Geography and Arithmetick as far as Proportion, including a general view of 
Vulgar and Decimal Fractions, in all of which they must be found well versed, 
in order to be admitted. The lads, who produce the certificates granted them for 
their merit, as in Sect. 2, Chap. 2, Reg. 16 shall be exempted from examinations 
accordingly. (This refers to the "two boys most distinguished for their improve- 
ment and good behavior" who were admitted without examination.) 

4. The school shall be devided into three classes; and such sections of these 
shall be formed as the good of the school shall from time to time demand. Each 
class shall have their appropriate studies assigned them, corresponding to the 

' Brown, E. E., Tht Making of Our Middle Schools; An Account of Ike Development of Secondary 
Education in the United States, 1902, pp. 298-300. 
' Ibid., pp. 300-1. 
' Report of 1823, pp. 23-26. 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 3 

intellectual progress of the institution; and to every class and section of the same 
the matter shall be required to give a due proportion of his personal attention. 

5. Individuals shall be advanced in these classes according to their scholar- 
ship and no faster; and none shall be permitted to remain members of the school 
longer than three years to complete their course. 

6. The classes or sections shall be required to pursue their respective branches 
of study not less than one week, without mixture, except where occasional exer- 
cises, as writing, reading, declamation, composition, &c, may be advantageously 
introduced as a relief to the pupils. 

7. Particular reviews of each class or section shall be instituted, once a week, 
and general reviews once a quarter by the several instructors, in their appropriate 
departments. 

8. The branches of learning and authors, to which the several classes shall, 
at present, be required to attend, are as follows: 3d or lowest Class. No. 1. Intel- 
lectual and Written Arithmetick, by Colburn and Lacroix. 2. Ancient and Modern 
Geography, by Worcester. 3. General History, by Tyler; History of the United 
States, by Grimshaw. 4. Elements of Arts and Sciences, by Blair. 5. Reading, 
Grammar and Declamation. 6. Book-keeping by Single and Double Entry. 
7. Sacred Geography. 

2d Class. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Continued, and No. 8 Algebra, by dictation 
. . . and Euler. 9. Rhetorick and Composition . . . Blair's Lecture abridged. 
10. Geometry, by Legendre. 11. Natural Philosophy. 12. Natural Theology, 
by Poley. 

1st. Class. No. 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 Continued, and No. 13, Chronology. 
14. Moral Philosophy, by Poley, 15. Forensicks. 16. Criticisms on English 
Authors. 17. Practical Mathematicks, Comprehending Navigation, Survey- 
ing, Mensuration, Astronomical Calculations, &c, together with the Construction 
and Use of Mathematical Instruments. 20. A course of Experimental Lectures 
on the various branches of Natural Philsophy. 21. Evidences of Christianity, 
by Poley. 

9. For every accession of forty pupils to the whole number in this school 
an additional assistant shall be allowed the master, that is, there shall be at least 
one instructor for every forty pupils. 

This course of study remained unchanged, with the following 
exceptions, up to 1852: In 1829" the following "studies are allowed 
if the masters think proper to introduce them": Smellie's Philoso- 
phy of History, chemistry, intellectual philosophy, linear drawing, 
and logic. In 1836^ trigonometry, French, and constitution of the 
United States were added. 

In 1852 a four-year course was provided instead of a three, with 
t he following course of study : 

Class 3. 1. Review of-preparatory Studies using the text books authorized 
in the Grammar and Writing Schools of the City. 2. Ancient Geography. 
3. Worcester's General History. 4._^Sherwin's Algebra. 5. French Language. 
6. Drawing. 

' Report of 1829, p. 19. 
' Report of 1836, p. 19. 



4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Class 2. 1. Sherwin's Algebra, continued. 2. French Language, continued. 

3. Drawing, continued. 4. Legendre's Geometry. 5. Bookkeeping. 6. Blair's 
Rhetoric. 7. Constitution of the United States. 8. Trigonometry, with its 
application to Surveying, Navigation, Mensuration, Astronomical Calculations 
&c. 9. Foley's Evidences of Christianity — a Monday-morning lesson. 

Class 1. Trigonometry, with its applications &c continued. 2. Foley's 
Evidences, continued — a Monday-morning lesson. 3, Drawing, continued. 

4. Astronomy. 5. Natural Philosophy. 6. Moral Philosophy. 7. Political 
Economy. 8. Natural Theology. 9. Cleveland's Compendium of English 
Literature. 10. French, continued, or the Spanish language may be commenced 
by such pupils, as in the judgment of the master have acquired a competent 
knowledge of the French. 

For the pupils who remain at the school the fourth year, the course of studies 
shall be as follows: 1. Astronomy. 2. Intellectual Philosophy. 3. Omitted in 
Report. 4. Logic. 5. Spanish. 6. Geology. 7. Mechanics, Engineering and the 
higher Mathematics with some option. 

Sect. 9. The several classes shall also have exercises in English Composition 
and Declamation. The instructors shall pay particular attention to the pen- 
manship of the pupils, and give constantly such instruction in Spelling, Reading 
and English Grammar as they may deem to be necessary to make the pupils 
perfect in these fundamental branches of a good education.' 

This course of study as given above remained without important 
change and "The Regulations Relating to the English High School" 
were practically unmodified up to 1860. As pointed out above, a 
fourth year was added to the course and boys were permitted to 
remain in the school four years instead of three. 

The regulations and course of study of the Latin Grammar 
School^ indicate a very dllTerent purpose for this school. Its 
avowed object was to prepare for the University' and the course of 
study^ consisted (except for arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and 
trigonometry) of Latin, Greek, and subjects closely allied. Boys 
were admitted at nine years of age,^ and it required five years' 
to complete the course. 

In the Report of 1827, are given the regulations relating to the 
high school for girls and the course of study. The course was one 
year in length. No girl was admitted before the age of fourteen 
nor after sixteen. The purpose of the school is not stated. The 
course of study was as follows: 

1. Reading, Pierpont's First Class Book. 2. Spelling, Walker's Dictionary, 
abridged; Boston Stereotype Edition. 3. English Grammar, Murray's Abridg- 

' Report of 1852, pp. 39-40. 
'Report of I82J, pp. 26-30. 
' Ibid., p. 26. 
• Ibid., p. 28. 
> Ibid., p. 27. 
< Ibid., p. 27. 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 5 

merit; Collin's Stereotype Edition. 4. Rhetoric, Blair's Lectures, abridged; 
Greene's Edition. 5. Composition. 6. Modern Geography, by Worcester. 
7. Ancient Geography. 8. The drawing of Maps. 9. Mental Arithmetic, Col- 
burn's First Lessons. 10. Written Arithmetic, Colburn's Sequel. 11. Practical 
Geometry. 12. Natural Philosophy, Blake's Edition of the Conversations. 
13. Bookkeeping, by Single Entry. 14. History of the United States, by Good- 
rich.' 

No mention of this school is made in subsequent reports. 

The early reports of the School Committee of Lowell, Massa- 
chusetts, contain very meager information concerning the high 
school. In the Report of 1839 is found the following: 

One of the strongest arguments in favor of placing it (the high school) at 
once on the most permanent and respectable basis, is that it may draw to its halls, 
the children of all classes: that it may be the place where rich and the poor may 
meet together; where the wall of partition which now seems raised between them, 
may be removed; where the kindlier feelings between the children of these classes 
may be begotten ; where the indigent may be excited to emulate the cleanliness, 
decorum and mental improvement of those in better circumstances; and where 
the children of our wealthier citizens will have an opportunity of witnessing and 
sympathizing, more than they now do, in the wants and privations of their fellows 
of the same age; where both insensibly forget the distinction which difference 
of circumstances would otherwise have drawn between them and where all feel the 
conscious dignity of receiving their instruction as a right, to which as the children 
of citizens they are entitled and which cannot be denied them.- 

In the Report of 1840 the following statement is made: 

The influence of this school is felt as an incentive to exertion through all the 
public schools in the city. Its object is to place within reach of the poorest citizen 
such means of preparing his children for college, or for giving instruction, or for 
any branch of active business, as the richest shall be glad to avail themselves of, 
for their own children. This object has been thus far realized. More needs not 
to be said to commend this institution to the especial sympathy and favor of the 
people.' 

Again in the Report of 1843 we find: 

Of our High school little need be said. It has so far become an object of 
pride and affection with our citizens, that it may be said to be constantly under 
their eye; and there is therefore the less necessity that the Committee should call 
the public attention to it. 

It has entirely superseded all private schools in our City, and all necessity 
for them. No class of our citizens is excluded from its benefits, and none cer- 
tainly can have any inducement to deprive themselves of its advantages, by 
sending their children to seek higher, or more thorough instruction elsewhere.* 

1 Report of 1827, pp. 22-23. 
' Report of 1839, pp. 4-5. 
' Report of 1840, pp. 6-7. 
< Report of 1843, p. 5. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



It is probable that the course of study was not very well worked 
out from the following statement found in the Report of 1851 : 

There are two modes in which a High School may be organized and con- 
ducted. One is, that of an exact and prescribed course of study, limited to a term 
of three, four or five years, (generally three) with annual admission, and a corre- 
sponding course of study for each year. The other is no prescribed course; but 
in its place an authorized list of studies, left to the option of the pupil, with entire 
freedom of admission or absence each term. 

The former is now adopted by every other important High School in Massa- 
chusetts, including that of Lawrence; Lowell is left almost in the exclusive advoc- 
acy of the latter. Is our practise founded in wisdom, sanctioned by experience, 
or enforced by an inevitable necessity?' 

It is evident that Lowell soon fell into line in adopting the plan 
found in other high schools. In the Report of 1852 courses of study 
for both the male and female departments are given in detail. The 
English course for the male department was as follows: 

ENGLISH COURSE' FOR MALE DEPARTMENT 



First Term 
English Grammar and 

Parsing 
Physiology 

Arithmetic 

Natural Philosophy 
Useful Arts 



Algebra 
Astronomy 



FIRST YEAR 
Second Term 
English Grammar and 

Parsing 
Physiology and General 

History 
Arithmetic 

SECOND YEAR 

Chemistry 

Useful Arts, Natural 

History 
Algebra 

THIRD YEAR 

Astronomy 

Political Economy 
Trigonometry 



Third Term 
Natural Philosophy 

General History 

Algebra 

Chemistry 
Natural History 

Geometry 

Intellectual Philos- 
ophy 
Rhetoric 
Surveying or Review 



Physical Geography 
Geometry 

The English course offered in the female departinent differed but 
very little from that of the male department. The classical course 
was the same in both departments and was as follows: 

CLASSICAL COURSE IN BOTH DEPARTMENTS 



First Term 
Latin Lessons 

'Report of 1851, p. 50. 
■Report of 1852, p. 9. 



FIRST YEAR 
Second Term 
Latin Reader 



Third Term 
Latin Reader 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 7 

SECOND YEAR 

Caesar Caesar Caesar 

THIRD YEAR 

Virgil and Greek Reader Virgil and Greek Reader Virgil and Greek 

Reader 

FOURTH YEAR 

Cicero and Greek Cicero and Greek Review 

Reader Reader 

Whether students in the classical department carried studies in 
addition to those listed is not made clear. 

It will be seen that the purpose of the Lowell High School was to 
fit for college as well as for the practical duties of life. In this 
respect it differed from that of the English Classical School of 
Boston. 

The Report of 1857' contains revised courses of study. The 
word "Department" has now been dropped and "Courses of Study" 
substituted. An English course of three years and a classical 
course of four years are maintained. A study of these courses makes 
it clear that the purpose remains the same, viz., the English course 
to fit for the practical duties of life, and the classical course to fit 
for higher institutions. 

The number of years required to complete the course of study 
offered by the Springfield, Massachusetts, High School is not given 
in the earliest report in which the high school is mentioned — that of 
1852. In this report it is stated that three departments were 
maintained — the department of common English branches, one of 
higher English and mathematical branches, and a third course 
called the classical department. The following subjects were 
taught, the number following each indicating the number of pupils 
pursuing the subject :^ 

Greek, 4 Natural Philosophy, 48 

French, 31 Bookkeeping, 33 

Latin, 98 Algebra, 90 

Arithmetic, 60 Mensuration, IS 

Grammar, 58 Surveying 

Geography, 64 Botany, 16 

History of United States, 67 Watts, 6 

Parker's Exercises, 50 Geometry, 20 

Physiology, 10 " Meteorology, 36 

All are required to attend regularly to Orthography, Reading and Composi- 
tion, and all in the male department to declamation. Singing is a daily exercise. 

1 Report of 1857, p. 37. 
' Report of 1852, p. 10. 



8 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



In the Report of 1855' the list of subjects taught is given, and it 
differs from that of 1852 in the following particulars: Parker's 
Exercises, mensuration, and surveying were dropped; ancient and 
modern history, chemistry, rhetoric, astronomy, geology, natural 
theology, and United States constitution were added. In 1858 two 
departments were maintained — English and classical. No informa- 
tion is given concerning the requirements of either course. The 
statement is made that the English course requires three years to 
complete it, and provides that certain studies may be pursued dur- 
ing the fourth year. No ancient languages were offered in this 
course. 

A high school was established in New Haven, Connecticut, in 
May, 1859.2 jsjq information is given in this report, nor in the 
reports of 1860, 1861, or 1862 concerning the course of study. In 
the Report of 1863, the following subjects are listed:' 

Greek 

Rhetoric 

Logic 

Mental and Moral Philosophy 



Arithmetic 
Bookkeeping 
Algebra 
Geometry 
Trigonometry 
Mensuration 
Surveying 
Navigation 

English Language and Litera- 
ture 
Reading and Declamation 
Spelling and Defining 
Composition 
French 
German 
Latin 



History 

Political Philosophy 

Constitution of United States 

Physical Geography 

Natural Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 

Philosophy 

Botany 

Geology 



The early reports of Baltimore, Maryland, contain no reference 
to a high school, the first definite information concerning a course 
of study being found in the Report of 1851. In this Report the 
following high school course of study is given:* 



FIRST YEAR 

Ancient and Modern History 

Grammar 

Geography 



SECOND YEAR 

Ancient and Modern History 

Composition 

Ancient Geography 



' Report of 1855, p. 37. 

2 Annual Report oj Board oj Education, 1850, p. i\. 

' Report ol 1863, p. 18. 

•Report of 1851, p. 20. 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 



Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Astronomy and Globes 

Bookkeeping 

Mensuration 

Natural Philosophy 

Physiology 

Ancient and Modern Languages 

Writing 

Linear and Perspective Drawing 

Mechanical Drawing 

Music 

FOURTH YEAR 
Composition 
Declamation 
Rhetoric 
Logic 
History 
Bookkeeping 
Analytic Geometry 
Engineering with the use of 

instruments of surveying and 

leveling 
Dialling 

Practical Astronomy 
Descriptive Geometry 
Navigation 
Calculus 
Conic Sections 
Natural Philosophy 
Chemistry 
Writing 
Drawing 
Mineralogy 
Physiology 

Constitution of|Maryland 
Political Economy 
Ancient and Modern Languages 

As early as 1855 there was a high school established for girls and 
the course of study is given in the report of that year.' The course 
of study of the Central High School in this city is given in the 
Report of 1860. The course was as follows, the number follow- 
ing each subject indicating the number of recitations per week:^ 



Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Natural Philosophy 

Physiology 

Ancient & Modern Languages 

Writing 

Drawing 

Music 



THIRD YEAR 

Ancient and Modern History 

Composition 

Elocution 

Rhetoric 

Trigonometry 

Surveying 

Bookkeeping 

Chemistry with lectures 

Natural Philosophy 

Astronomy 

Physiology 

Moral Philosophy 

Ancient and Modern Languages 

Writing 



' Report of 1855, p. 63. 
' Report o( 1860, p. 164. 



10 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



FIRST YEAR 

Latin, 3 

United States History, 1 
Greek, 3 
German, 3 
French, 2 

Analytical Geometry and Cal- 
culus, 3 
Astronomy, 1 
Chemistry, 3 
Physiology, 1 
Rhetoric and Elocution, 2 
Mental and Moral Philosophy, 3 

THIRD YEAR 

Greek, 3 
Latin, 3 
German, 3 
French, 3 
History, 2 
Surveying, 3 
Astronomy, 2 
Natural Philosophy, 4 
Bookkeeping, 1 
Composition and Declama- 
tion, 2 



SECOND YEAR 

United States History, 1 
Bookkeeping, 3 
Reviews, 3 
German, 3 
French, 2 

Analytical Geometry and Calcu- 
lus, 3 
Astronomy, 1 
Chemistry, 3 
Physiology, 1 
Rhetoric and Elocution, 2 
Mental and Moral Philosophy, 3 

FOURTH YEAR 

German, 4 
French, 4 
History, 2 
Surveying, 3 
Astronomy, 2 
Bookkeeping, 3 
Vocal Music, 1 
Natural Philosophy, 4 
Composition and Declama- 
tion, 2 
Mensuration, 3 
Geometry, 4 



Physiology, 4 

The Philadelphia High School was established in 1837.' In the 
report of the following year is contained the following: 

Since that period (referring to the last Report) a building admirably adapted 
to its intended uses has been completed on the east of Penn Square, near the mint of 
the United States, professors in various branches of classical, English Belle- 
Lettes, mathematical, astronomical and physical science appointed, the school 
opened, and an adequate number of pupils after due and strict examination have 
been admitted. Lectures are delivered on natural history, comparative anatomy, 
botany, chemistry, mineralogy and geology. The French, German, and Spanish 
languages will be added as classes are formed. 

The vast advantages of such an establishment to the pupils of this school, 
to'the best interests of geographical, nautical, and astronomical science, and to 
the enviable distinction of our noble commonwealth are too obvious to need 
comment here.^ 

In the report of the acting high-school principal, 1840, the 
following information is given concerning the course of study: 

Three courses were contemplated as follows: Principal Course, Classical 
Course, and English Course. The Principal Course offered the following range 

^ Annual Report of Ihe Controllers of the Public Schools of the City of Philadelphia, 18J7, pp. 5-6. 
2 Report of 1838, pp. 8-9. 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 11 

of subjects: English Belles-Lettres and History; French; Morals; Mathematics; 
Natural Philosophy and Geography; Natural History; Drawing and Writing. 

Pupils in the Classical Course substituted classics for French and those in 
the English Course substituted English and Mathematics for French.' 

An analysis of the rather broad designations used abov^e reveals 
the following: 

English Belles-Lettres and History consisted of the following: European 
and United States History; Rhetoric Etymological exercises; Analysis of sen- 
tences with reference to grammar and rhetoric, and of words with reference to 
etymological composition, declamation, etc. 

The Department of Moral and Mental Science consisted of oral lessons on 
morals; and the Constitution of Pennsylvania. 

The Department of Mathematics included Algebra; Arithmetic; Geometrj'; 
Plane Trignonometry; Geography; Natural Philosophy; and Mechanics. 

The Department of Natural History included the following: General prin- 
ciples of special Physics; Bony, Muscular, Vascular and Nervous systems, etc.; 
Evidences of design; Application to the Ordinary cases of bodily injuries.- 

The subjects offered and the time devoted to each^ are shown 
in the Report of 1845: 

Moral, Mental and Political Science. — Political Economy 1, Mental Philos- 
ophy 1, Moral Philosophy 1, Constitution of Pennsylvania J^, Constitution of 
the United States 3^, Belles-Lettres and History, Guizot's History of Civilization 
Yi, Schlagel's History of Literature 1, Whateley's Logic Yi, Whateley's Rhetoric J^, 
Robertson's Charles V J/2, Goldsmith's History of Rome 34, Composition and 
Rhetorical Analysis Y, White's Elements of General History J-^, History of Greece 
14, History of England Y, History of the United States Y, Oswald's Etymology 2. 

Ancient and Modern Languages. — Greek 2, Latin 4, Spanish 1, and apparently 
1 year of French. 

Languages and Extra English. — Chemistry 1, Natural Philosophy 1, His- 
torical Narrations J^, Etymology 2, Mathematics and Astronomy, Algebra, 
Geometry, Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry, Calculus, Navigation, Mensura- 
tion, Anatomy, Physiolog>' and Natural Historj', Anatomy and Physiolog>' (lec- 
tures) 3, Zoology, Hygiene (lectures 3^2, Domestic Medicine and Surgery (lectures) 
H, Natural Philosophy and Chemistry (lectures) 1}^. 

Drawijig, Writing, and Bookkeeping. — Bookkeeping was offered two and a 
half years. The other work consisted of what was called Drawing and Plain and 
Ornamental Writing. The drawing was from solid objects and patterns.' 

This course remained without material changes up to 1860 as is 
shown by the high-school course on pages 142-43 of the report of 
that year. 

' Report of the Acting High-School Principal, 1840, pp. 18-26. 

^Ibid., pp. 31-34. 

' The figures indicate years or fractions of a year. 

• Report of 1845, pp. 79-80. 



12 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

An analysis of the course of the Boston school, 1823, shows the 
following range of subjects in the various fields : 
Mathematics: Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and "Practical Mathematicks." 

(Since this included surveying, navigation, etc., trigonometry was no doubt 

taught.) 
English: Reading, Grammar, Declamation, Rhetoric, Composition, Criticism 

of English Authors. 
Science: Natural Philosophy, A course of Experimental Lectures on the various 

branches of Natural Philosophy, Elements of Arts and Sciences, Ancient and 

Modern Geography. 
Social Studies: General History, United States History. 
Commercial Subjects: Bookkeeping. 
Miscellaneous: Sacred Geography, Blair's Lectures, abridged. Natural Theology, 

Chronology, Moral Philosophy, Forensicks, Evidences of Christianity. 

The course of study for 1852 which remained without important 
change to 1860, gives evidence of the same aim as that of 1823. A 
fourth year was made optional. A somewhat wider range of sub- 
jects was offered and a few subjects discontinued. Those added are 
indicated below and those in parentheses have been discontinued. 

A review of preparatory studies is required : 

Mathematics: Mechanics, Engineering and "higher mathematics with some 

option." (Arithmetic.)' 
English: (Criticism of Authors.) Compending English Literature. (Grammar.)' 
Science: Astronomy, Geology, (Modern Geography.)' 
Social studies: Constitution of United States. (United States History.)' 
Commercial subjects: No change. 
Foreign language: French or Spanish. 
Miscellaneous: Drawing, Political Economy, Intellectual Philosophy, Logic 

(Sacred Geography), (Chronology), (Forensicks). 

The aim of this school remained unchanged as shown by the 
foregoing analysis. The absence of ancient language and the 
emphasis upon the so-called English subjects is conclusive proof 
that no attempt was made to prepare for higher Institutions. Bos- 
ton maintained another type of secondary school, the Latin Gram- 
mar SchooF for this purpose.' Its curriculum* was almost exclu- 
sively classical, no attempt being made to perform the function 
of the other type of school. 

An analysis of the English courses of study in other high schools 
will reveal the same general facts as those revealed by an analysis 

1 Included in the preparatory studies. 
' Report of 1823, pp. 26-30. 
3 Ibid., p. 26. 
« Ibid., p. 28. 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 



13 



of the English Classical School. There was lack of uniformity with 
regard to range of subjects — some offered three and others four 
years of work — but the aim, that of fitting for active life, was the 
same. 

A comparison of the course of study of Springfield, Massachu- 
setts,' 1852 with that of Baltimore, Maryland,^ 1851 shows clearly 
the wider range of work offered by the latter school. 



SPRINGFIELD 

Mathematics: 
Algebra 
Arithmetic 
Geometry 
Mensuration 
Surveying 



English: 

Orthography 
Reading 
Composition 
Grammar 
Parker's Exercises 

Science: 

Geography 

Physiology 

Natural Philosophy 
Botany 

Meteorology 

Social Studies: 

United States History 



Commercial Subjects: 
Bookkeeping 



BALTIMORE 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Mensuration 

Trigonometry 

Surveying 

Analytic Geometry 

Engineering 

Descriptive Geometry 

Navigation 

Calculus 

Conic Sections 

Grammar 

Composition 

Elocution 

Rhetoric 

Declamation 



Geography 

Astronomy 

Natural Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Physiology 

Mineralogy 

Ancient and Modern History 

History 

Political Economy 

Constitution of Maryland 



Bookkeeping 



> Report of 1852, p. 10. 
'Report o( 1851, p. 20. 



14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Miscellaneous: 

Watts' Ancient Geography 

Drawing 

Linear and Perspective Drawing 
Mechanical Drawing 
Moral Philosophy 
Logic 
Dialling 

It will be seen that the Baltimore school offered a much wider 
range of subjects particularly in mathematics, in the social studies, 
and in the miscellaneous subjects. The Lowell school^ offered a 
range of subjects similar to that of Springfield, while the course in 
the Philadelphia schooF was similar to that of Baltimore. 

Other high schools undertook to perform the functions of both 
types of Boston schools, that of preparing for higher institutions and 
also for the practical duties of life. The twofold aim of the Lowell 
high school is made clear in the Reports of ISW and 1843^ and also 
in the courses of study for 1852^ and 1857.' 

The schools of Springfield, Massachusetts,* New Haven, Connect- 
icut,' Baltimore, Maryland,'" and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania," 
carried out both educational aims in a single type of school. 

In summary, the following conclusions may be drawn: 

1. The aims of these high schools (Boston excepted) were to 
fit for higher institutions and also to prepare for the active duties of 
life. These two aims are revealed both in the stated purposes of the 
schools and in their curricula. 

2. The curricula constituted a wide range of subjects and 
included several subjects now found only in college curricula.''^ 
Examples of these are intellectual philosophy, moral philosophy, 
theology, evidences of Christianity, logic, calculus, analytics, sur- 
veying, navigation, and engineering. 

• Probably intellectual or moral philosophy. 
' Report of 1852, p. 9. 

■ Ibid. 

< Report of 1840, pp. 6-7. 

' Report of 1843, p. 5. 

• Report of 1849, p. 9. 
'Report of 1847, p. 10. 

8 Report of 1852, p. 10, and Report of 1853, p. 37. 

• Report of 1859, p. 31. 
"Report of 1851, p. 20. 

" Report of 1837, pp. 8 9, and Report of 1840, pp. 18-26. 

" Some high schools in the North Central states offered these subjects as is shown by reference to 
Appendix, Table A. 



THE EARLY HIGH-SCHOOL MOVEMENT 15 

3. While these schools were all influenced by the same control- 
ling aims, there was lack of uniformity in length of course, 
subjects offered, and in the organization of the curricula. These 
were, however, only minor differences, and the broad lines along 
which high-school education would develop were determined by 
these early schools. 



PART I 

DEVELOPMENT IN SUBJECTS AND IN CURRICULA ORGANIZATION 

CHAPTER II 

SIMILARITY IN GENERAL PLAN AND LACK OF UNI- 
FORMITY IN DETAILS OF CURRICULA 

The public secondary-school movement extended westward, and 
schools of this type were established prior to 1860. Dexter places 
the number in the North Central States' at 45 in 1860, and the 
whole number at 108.^ Cleveland, Ohio, established a high school 
in 1846, Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1847, and Toledo, Ohio, in 1849.' 
A movement to establish a high school was inaugurated in St. Louis, 
Missouri, as early as 1843, but the school was not authorized until 
1853.* The need of such a school was urged in Chicago, Illinois, in 
1846, but it was not established until 1856.^ Racine, Wisconsin, 
established a high school in 1852,^ Dubuque, Iowa, prior to 1858,' 
and Columbus, Indiana, in 1859.' Burlington, Iowa, did not 
authorize a high school until 1863, but high-school subjects were 
taught as early as 1853.' In connection with the union-school 
movement in Michigan, high schools were established at Adrian, 
Ann Arbor, Coldwater, Grand Rapids, Jonesville, and Ypsilanti as 
early as 1857."' 

It is evident that the high-school movement was well under way 
by 1860. It is also clear, as shown by the courses of study, that the 
aim of the English Classical School (Boston) was recognized by all 
these schools, and the twofold aim of the Lowell school was general." 
To what extent the western schools were directly influenced by the 
eastern is not clear although there is some evidence of such influ- 

1 Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraslta, North Dakota, Ohio, 
South Dakota, and Wisconsin. 

' Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United Slates, 1904, p. 173. 

'Ibid., p. 171. 

'Annual Report St. Louis Schools, 1867, pp. 108-09. 

•■Annual School Report, 1867, pp. 50-51. 

" Columbian History Racine Public Schools, p. 9. 

' Annual School Report, 1876, p. 65. 

' Education in Indiana, p. 272. 

• Report oj Board of Education, 1902, p. 60. 

^"Report Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1855-56-57, pp. 440-41, 449, 465, 476. 
" Cf. Appendix, Table A and Table II. 

16 



SIMILARITY IN PLAN OF CURRICULA 



17 



ence.' Similar social and educational needs and ideals in the two 
sections would account for similarity of educational aims and 
organizations, and this is clearly revealed both by the stated pur- 
poses of the schools and by their courses of study. A comparative 
study of Table A and the courses of study set forth in chapter i 
will reveal the points of similarity between the curricula of the 
eastern and western schools. This comparison also shows a lack 
of uniformity that would not be expected if the western schools 
had adopted, without modification, the courses of study of the 
eastern schools. 

An analysis of two courses of study^ reveals the similarity in 
general plan and also the lack of uniformity in details.^ 

BALTIMORE, MARYLAND, 1S51* COLUMBUS, OHIO, 1S5P 

M.\THEMATICS' 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Mensuration 

Surveying 

Navigation 

Engineering 

(Analytics) (Calculus) 

(Conic Sections) 

(Dialling) 

(Descriptive Geometry) 

ENGLISH 



Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Mensuration 

Surveying 

Navigation 

Engineering 

(Higher .Algebra) 

(Higher Geometry) 



Grammar 


Grammar 


Composition 


Composition 


Rhetoric 


Rhetoric 


Declamations 


Declamations 


(Elocution) 


(Higher Grammar) 




(Word -Analysis) 




(Synthetical Analysis) 




(Reading) 




(Rhetorical Reading) 




(History of Literature) 




(Elements of Criticism) 




(Study of Poetry) 


FOREIGN 


LANGUAGES 


Ancient and (Modern) 


Latin 


Languages 


Greek 



1 Columbian History of Racine Public Schools, 1893, p. 9. 

' History of Education in Iowa, 1915, III, 174. 

> Each course four years in length. 

* Annual School Report, 1851, p. 20. 

6 Annual School Report, 1851, p. 33. 

8 Subjects in parentheses not offered in the other school. 



18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

SCIENCE 

Physiology Physiology 

Natural Philosophy Natural Philosophy 

Astronomy Astronomy 

Chemistry Chemistry 

(Mineralogy) (Physical Geography) 

(Geography) (Botany) 

(Geology) 

SOCIAL STUDIES 

(Ancient) and Modern History Modern History 

Political Economy Political Economy 

Constitution of Maryland Constitution of Ohio 

(History) (United States History) 

(Chronology) 
(Philosophy of History) 
(Laws of Nations) 
(History of Civilization) 
(Constitution of United 
States) 

COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 

Bookkeeping Elements of Bookkeeping 

Double Entry Bookkeep- 
' ing 

(Business Forms) 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 

Moral Philosophy Moral Science 

Drawing Drawing 

Music Music 

(Linear and Perspective (Evidences of Christian- 
Drawing) ity) 

(Mechanical Drawing) (Logic) 

As further illustration of lack of uniformity, Cleveland, Ohio, 
offered a three-year course in 1852 with a more limited range of 
subjects than offered by either Baltimore, Maryland, or Columbus, 
Ohio.' No foreign language was offered which indicates that the 
school did not attempt to prepare for higher institutions, and 
mathematics was not taught beyond trigonometry. A four-year 
course was offered by Dubuque, Iowa, in 1856 with no foreign 
language.^ Two years later it was reduced to three years, and 
Latin, Greek, German, and French were provided, all of which were 
optional except Latin.' 

> Annual School Report, 1852, p. 23, 

2 AliRNEE, C. R., History of Education in Iowa, 1915, III, 281-82. 

' Ibid., pp. 282-84, 



SIMILARITY IN PLAN OF CURRICULA 19 

The representative courses of study given in full and the various 
tables will show in detail the marked lack of uniformity and also the 
characteristics common to high-school curricula for the period 
included in this study. For purposes of convenience and clearness 
in analyses and interpretations, the entire period of forty years is 
divided into periods of five years each. 

Tables A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J, in the Appendix, show 
the number of courses and names of towns and cities for each 
period, the length of the courses ofifered, the subjects offered, and 
length of time devoted to each subject and field. Bibliography of 
material used is given under separate title with the general bibli- 
ography at the close. 

Table I shows the number of courses offered by each school for 
the several periods and indicates the various descriptive titles used. 

Tables I I-IX show the number of schools for each period offering 
the subjects, and Table X indicates in percentages the number of 
schools offering each subject. 

Tables XI-XVIII indicate the differences in total time devoted 
to the fields by the several schools in each period. Table XIX 
shows the maxima, minima, modes, and averages in time devoted 
to each field for each period, and Tables XX-XXVII indicate the 
same for the various subjects. 

The tables will be found on the following pages: Table I, 46- 
50; Tables II-IX, 62-68; Table X, 71-74; Tables XI-XVIII, 
80-90; Table XIX, 90-91 ; Tables XX-XXVII, 92-99. Interpreta- 
tions follow the tables in each case. 



CHAPTER III 

REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 

The courses set out in the following pages were selected as 
typical for the several periods. In most cases they are reproduc- 
tions of the printed forms found in school reports cited in the foot- 
notes. In some instances where parallel courses are offered, all are 
not given in detail.' Analyses, comments, and interpretations 
will be found in succeeding chapters. 

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, 1859' 

FIRST YEAR 

Da vies' Elementary Algebra 
Green's English Analysis 
Davies' University Arithmetic 
Willson's United States History 
Lambert's Physiology 

SECOND YE.\R 

Wells' Natural Philosophy 
Quackenbough's Rhetoric and Exer- 
cises 
Willson's General History 
Davies' Legendre's Geometry 
Warren's Physical Geography 
Trigonometry and Surveying 

THIRD YEAR 

Davies' Higher Algebra 
Wayland's Intellectual Philosophy 

and Moral Science 
Wells's Chemistry 
Kane's Elements of Criticism 
Gray's Botany 
Bookkeeping (optional) any year in the Course. Reading and Spelling 
required daily during the whole Course. Declamation and Composition semi- 
monthly. Two years of French and one year of German offered. 

The instruction in the Classical Department is confined to the Latin and 
Greek classics, and such other studies as are requisite to prepare young men for 
the University. 

In addition to Latin and Greek the following subjects are offered in the 
Classical Department: 

English Analysis Modern Geography 

University Arithmetic • History of Rome 

Higher Algebra Ancient Geography 

1 Cf. pp. 20, 28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 40, 41. 

' Report Superinlendent Public Instruction, Michigan, 1860, pp. 244-45. 

20 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



21 



First Term 
Higher Arithmetic 
United States History 
English Analysis 



Higher Algebra 
Physical Geography 
Physiology 
Analysis of Words 

Geometry 
Natural Philosophy 
Rhetoric 
Ancient History 

Mental Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 



MADISON, WISCONSIN, 1863' 

FIRST YEAR 
Second Term 
Higher Arithmetic 
Elementary Algebra 
English Analysis and 
Parsing 

SECOND YEAR 

Higher Algebra 
Physical Geography 
Physiology 
English Literature 

THIRD YEAR 
Geometry 
Natural Philosophy 
Rhetoric 
Ancient History 

FOURTH YEAR 

Mental Philosophy 
Chemistry 
Moral Science 



Third Term 

Higher Arithmetic 
Elementary Algebra 
Botany and Vegetable 
Physiology 

Higher Algebra 
Botany 
Bookkeeping 
English Literature 

Geometry 

Rhetoric 

Geology 



Butler's Analogy 

Logic 

Political Economy 



Exercises in Declamation and Composition weekly throughout the Course. 
Latin may be substituted for other courses during the four years and Greek during 
the last year year by those preparing for college. 

CINCINNATI, OHIO, 1862' 



Five recitations per week unless otherwise indicated by figures after sub- 



jects. 



First Session 
Algebra 

German or French, 4 
English Classics and Rhetoric, 3 
Higher Arithmetic, 2 



FIRST YEAR 

Second Session 
Algebra 

German or French, 4 
English Classics and Rhetoric, 3 
Higher Arithmetic, 2 







SECOND YEAR 


Latin 




Latin 


Geometry 




Geometry 


German or 


French, 4 


German or French, 4 


Ancient Hi 


story, 4 


Medieval History, 4 


English Classics and 


Composi- English Classics and Composi- 


tion, 1 




tion, 1 

THIRD YEAR 


Algebra 




Trigonometry or Greek 


Greek 




Latin 


Latin 




Natural Philosophy or Greek, 4 



1 Annual School Report, 1863, pp. 22-23. 

' ThirtyMiird Annual Report Common Schools of Cincinnati, 1862, pp. 70-71. 



22 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



German or French, 4 
English Classics and Composi- 
tion, 1 



German or French, 4 
Modern History, 4 
English Classics or Composi- 
tion, 1 

FOURTH YEAR 

Latin Latin 

Chemistry or Greek Chemistry or Greek 

Natural Philosophy or Greek, 4 Astronomy 

Review of Algebra and Geome- Constitution of United States, 1 
try, 2 

Surveying (for boys), 3 
Instead of Latin in the second year, those making such choice may take a 
course of Commercial Forms and Bookkeeping, five lessons per week. Beginning 
with the third year original addresses and essays will be required once in three 
weeks to the end of the course. Vocal Music throughout the course. 



LEAVENWORTH, KANSAS, 1867' 
High School Course of Study 



First Term 
Higher Arithmetic 
English Analysis 
Anatomy 



FRESHM.\N YE.\R 
Second Term 
Higher Arithmetic 
Outlines of History 
Anatomy 
Physical Geography 



Latin, German, French and Spanish are optional. 



Algebra 

Natural Philosophy 

Political Economy 



SOPHOMORE YEAR 

Algebra 

Natural Philosophy 

Meteorology 



Latin, German, French and Spanish are optional. 

JUNIOR YEAR 

Geometry Geometry 

Chemistry Chemistry 

Rhetoric English Literature 



Latin, German, French and Spanish are optional. 



Astronomy 

Intellectual Philosophy 
Trigonometry 



SENIOR YEAR 

Moral Philosophy 
Mensuration and Sur- 
veying 
Logic 



Third Term 
Outlines of History 
Botany 
Physical Geography 



Algebra 

Botany 

Constitution and 
Science of Govern- 
ment. 



Chemistry 

Trigonometry 

Rhetoric 

English Literature 

Reviews 



Bookkeeping 
Intellectual Philos- 
ophy 
Moral Philosophy 
Geology 
Reviews 



I Rcporl oj Superintendent o] Schools, 1867, pp. 43-44. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



23 



Latin, German, French, and Spanish are optional. Composition and Decla- 
mation weekly throughout the entire course. Physical exercises daily. Reading 
and writing twice a week. 

JACKSONVILLE, ILLINOIS, 1869' 
English and Cl.\ssic.\l Course 





FIRST YEAR 




First Term 


Second Term 


Third Term 


Arithmetic 


The same, except Greek 


English Language 


Grammar 


is added 


Algebra 


Algebra 




Caesar 


Natural Philosophy 




Greek 


Latin 


SECOND YEAR 


Ancient History 


Ancient History 


Ancient History 


Intellectual Philos- 


Geometry 


Geometry 


ophy 


Bookkeeping 


Virgil 


Geometry 


Physiology 


Bookkeeping 


Botany 


Caesar 


Physiology 


Science of Govern- 


Greek 


Greek 

THIRD YEAR 


ment 
Virgil 
Greek 


Rhetoric 


Rhetoric 


Intellectual Physiol- 


Astronomy 


Astronomy 


ogy 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


Moral Philosophy 


Geology 


Geology 


Botany 


Cicero's De Senectute 


Greek 


Zoology 


Anabasis 


Cicero's De Senectute 


Cicero 
Greek 


Reading, spelling. 


declamation, and composition 


continued throughout the 


entire course. 


Normal Course 
first year 




First Term 


Second Terra 


Third Term 


Arithmetic 


Geography 


Grammar 


Methods of Instruction Economics 


Spelling 


Inventive Drawing 


School Organization 


Penmanship 


Physiology 


Mechanical Drawing 
second year 


Physical Geography 


School Discipline 


Algebra 


Mental Philosophy 


Mental Arithmetic 


Natural History 


Astronomy 


Object Lessons 


Physiology 


Science of Govern- 


Music 


Reading 


ment ^^ ,^ 
School Registration 



' Report of SuperinU.idenl of Schools to Board of Education, 1869, p. 50. 



24 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



WATERLOO, IOWA, 1870' 

FIRST YEAR 
Second Term 

History or Latin 
Algebra 

Higher Arithmetic or 
Bookkeeping 

SECOND YEAR 

Latin or German 

Geometry 

Physiology 

THIRD YEAR 

Latin or German 
German 

Mental Philosophy 
Rhetoric 
Penmanship, Declamation, and composition th 



First Term 
History or Latin 
Algebra 

Higher Arithmetic or 
Bookkeeping 

Latin or German 

Geometry 

Physiology 

Latin or German 

Astronomy 

Rhetoric 



Third Terra 
History or Latin 
Algebra 

Higher Arithmetic or 
Bookkeeping 

Latin or German 
Trigonometry 
Natural Philosophy 

Latin or German 
German 

Moral Philosophy 
Logic 
roughout the course. 



CINCINNATI, OHIO, 1872^ 



GRADE D 
First Session 
Latin 

College Latin 
German 
Algebra 

Anatomy, Physiology and Hy- 
giene, 2 
History, 4 
Composition, 1 
Elocution, 1 
Drawing, 1 



Second Session 

Latin 

College Latin 

German 

Algebra 

Anatomy, Physiology 

and Hygiene, 2 
History, 4 
Composition, 1 
Elocution, 1 
Freehand Drawing, 1 



Latin 

College Latin 

Greek 

French 

German 

Algebra, 4 

History, 4 

Composition, 1 

Elocution, 1 

Freehand Drawing, 1 



Latin 

College Latin 

Greek 

French 

German 

English Grammar, 4 

Composition, 1 

Elocution, 1 

Freehand Drawing, 1 



Latin 
College Latin 



Latin, 4 
College Latin 



1 Rules and Regulations, 1870, p. 10. 

3 Annual School Report, 1872-73, pp. 291-94. Figures after subjects indicate number of recitations 
per week. Five recitations per week unless otherwise indicated. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



25 



Greek 

French, i 

German, 4 

Geometry 

English Literature, 3 

Natural Philosophy, 4 

Elocution, 1 

Drawing, 1 



Greek 

French, 4 

German, 4 

Geometry and Plane and Spheri- 

ical Trigonometry' 
Natural Philosophy, 4 
Botany, 3 

English Literature, 3 
Composition, 1 
Elocution, 1 
Drawing, 1 



GRADE A 

First Session 

Latin, 3 

College Latin 

Greek 

French, 3 

Astronomy, completed, 4 

Chemistrj', 4 

Natural Historj', 1 

Mental Philosophy, 1 

Constitution of LInited States, 1 

Bookkeeping, 2 

English Literature, 3 

Composition, 1 

Drawing, 1 
Pupils in the Grades A, B, and C may, under the direction of the principal, 
select from the studies of their respective grades an amount of work equal to 
fifteen recitations per week exclusive of Composition, Reading, and Declamation. 
In the latter branch all pupils shall have one lesson every two weeks. 



Second Session 
Latin, 3 
College Latin 
Greek 
French, 3 

Plane Surveying, 3 
Chemistr>', 4 
Mental Philosophy, 1 
Geology, 3 
Natural History, 1 
English Literature, 3 
Composition, 1 
Drawing, 1 



First Term 
Grammar 
Algebra 

Physical Geography 
Latin 

Natural History 
Geometry 
General History 
Latin 

Philosophy 
Higher Arithmetic 
Rhetoric 
Latin 



MADISON, WISCONSIN, 1872' 

FIRST YEAR 
Second Term 
The same with Physiol- 
ogy added 



SECOND YEAR 

The same with Botany 
added 



THIRD YEAR 
Philosophy 
Higher Arithmetic 
History of England 
Latin 



Third Term 
Composition 
Algebra 
Physiology 
Latin 

The same with Natural 
Historj' added. 



Civil Government 
Sentential Analysis 
History' of England 
Latin 



'Annual School Report. 1872. p. 32. 



26 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Greek and German will be optional studies, and any student taking either of 
these languages will be excused from one of the English studies. Compositions, 
Declamations, Music, Drawing, and Reading throughout the course. 



First Term 

Algebra 

Physical Geography 

Latin 



Geometry 
Natural History 
Latin 

General History 
Greek (optional) 



Trigonometry 
Mechanics 

Latin, French, or Ger- 
man 
English Literature 
Greek 



Mental Science 
Chemistry 

Latin, French, or Ger- 
man 



CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, 1872' 

FIRST YEAR 

Second Term 
Algebra 

Physical Geography 
Latin 

SECOND YEAR 

Geometry 

Natural History and 

Botany 
Latin 

General History 
Greek (optional) 

THIRD YEAR 
Astronomy 
Physics 

Latin, French, or Ger- 
man 
English Literature 
Greek 

FOURTH YEAR 

Mental Sciences 
Bookkeeping 
Latin, French, or Ger- 
man 



Third Term 
Algebra 
Physical Geography 

and Physiology 
Latin 

Same as second 



Astronomy 

Physics and Mechan- 
ics 

Latin, French, or Ger- 
man 

English Literature 

Greek 

Mental Sciences 

Bookkeeping 

Latin, French, or Ger- 



Civil Government Geology Political Economy 

Greek Political Economy Greek 

Composition, drawing, and reading throughout the courses. Those in pre- 
paration for college who desire it, can omit the English branches, except the 
requisite mathematics, and complete the course in three years. 



COLUMBUS, OHIO, 1878' 

FIRST YEAR 

Algebra, English, Latin or German. 

SECOND YEAR 
First Term Second Term 

Geometry Geometry 

Ancient History or Ancient History or 

Greek Greek 

Latin or German Latin or German 

1 Annual Rtpcirl Board of Education, 1872, p. 220. 
' Annual Report Board oj Education, 1878. 



Third Term 
Geometry 

Physiology or Greek 
Latin or German 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



27 



Chemistry 
Rhetoric or Greek 
Latin or German 

Physics 

English Literature 

Latin or German 



THIRD YEAR 
Chemistry 
Rhetoric or Greek 
Latin or German 

SENIOR YEAR 

Physics 

English Literature 

Latin or German 



Trigonometry 
Rhetoric or Greek 
Latin or German 

Arithmetic (review) 
English Grammar (Re- 
view) 
Astronomy 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 

Senior Class — Weekly lectures in Political Economy. 

Junior Class — Weekly lessons in Civil Government (7 months). 

Junior Class — Weekly lessons in Botany (6 months). 

Second Class — Weekly lectures in Physics. 

All Classes — Music twice a week, and Drawing twice a week. 

All Classes — Rhetorical Exercises once each week. 



OSKALOOSA, IOWA, 1876' 





SUB-JUNIOR YEAR 




First Term 


Second Term 


Third Term 


Algebra 


Algebra 


Algebra 


Physiology 


Physiology 


Natural Philosophy 


English Grammar 


English Grammar 


English Composition 


Latin — Beginner's Book 


Latin — Beginner's Book 
and Reader 

JUNIOR YEAR 


Latin Reader 


Algebra 


Geometry 


Geometry 


Natural Philosophy 


Physical Geography 


Physical Geography 


Outlines of History 


Outlines of History 


Outlines or History 


Latin Reader 


Caesar 

SENIOR YEAR 


Caesar 


Geometry 


Review Algebra 


Review Arithmetic 


Zoology 


Botany 


Botany 


Rhetoric 


Rhetoric 


Constitution of United 


Caesar 


Virgil 


States 
Virgil 



Spelling during entire course. Literary exercises monthly. 



SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS, 1880' 
English Course 



FIRST year 

Second Term 



Same 



First Term 

Algebra 

General History 
Physiology 
Lessons in English 
Composition 



' Rules and Regulations, Courses of Study, 1876, p. 17. 

' Annual Report Superintendent Public Schools, 1880, pp. 72-73. 



Third Term 

Same 



28 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Algebra 
Bookkeeping 
United States Constitu- 
tion 
Rhetoric 

Geometry 
Political Economy 
Natural Philosophy 
English Literature 



SECOND YEAR 

Geometry 

Physical Geography 
Botany 
Rhetoric 

THIRD YEAR 

Trigonometry 
Natural History 
Natural Philosophy 
English Literature 

FOURTH YEAR 

Mathematics (reviewed) 

Chemistry 

English (reviewed) 



Same 



Same 



Mathematics (re- 
viewed) 
Science (reviewed) 
English (reviewed) 



Geology 
Astronomy 
Chemistry 
English 

Declamation and Composition throughout the course. 

Classical Course 
FIRST year: Substitute Latin or German for Physiology. 
second year: Substitute Latin and Greek for Bookkeeping, United States 
Constitution and Science. 

THIRD year: Substitute Virgil or German and Greek for Political Economy 
and Science. 

fourth year: Substitute: 

First Term: Livy or German, Ancient Geography for Science. 
Second Term: Horace or German, and Homer for Science. 
Third Term: Same. 





AUBURN, INDIANA, 1882' 






grade one 




First Term 


Second Term 


Third Term 


Reading 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Spelling 


Grammar 


Grammar 


Writing 


History 


Geography 


Arithmetic 


Reading 


Reading 


Grammar 


Spelling and Writing, 


Spelling and Writing, 


History 


continued 

grade two 


continued 


Arithmetic 


Physiology 


Algebra 


Grammar 


Algebra 


Physical Geography 


Physiology 


Bookkeeping 

grade three 


Latin 


Algebra 


Algebra 


General History 


Physical Geography 


General History 


Geometry 


Latin 


Latin 

GR.\DE FOUR 


Latin 


Geometry 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


Philosophy 


Philosophy 


Civil Government 


Caesar 


Caesar 


Virgil 



' Rules and Regulalions oj lite Public Schools, 1882-8.1, pp. 9-10. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



29 



ST. LOUIS MISSOURI, 1881' 

FIRST YEAR 

Latin, Arithmetic, Physiology or German, Rhetoricals 3, Drawing 2. 

SECOND YEAR 

Algebra, Natural Philosophy, Latin, German or Greek, or History of Art 
or Mechanical Drawing, Rhetoricals 3, Drawing 2. 

THIRD YEAR 

Greek or Bookkeeping or Mechanical Drawing; Latin or German or French; 
General History; Chemistry 2; Rhetoricals 3; Geometry 2. 

FOURTH YEAR 

History of English Literature, Shakespeare and Constitution of United 
States; Latin or French or German; Zoology and Geology or Greek or Laboratory 
Chemistry or Mental Philosophy or Trigonometry; Rhetoricals 2. 

The boys in the Senior class are required to take 2 of the 6 studies under 4. 
Music throughout the course. 



MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN. 
English-Science Course 



1884^ 



First Term 

Algebra 

Grammar and Composi- 
tion 
Etymology 

Geometry 
General History 
Biology 

Physics 

English History 
English Literature 



FIRST YEAR 
Second Term 



Same 



SECOND YEAR 



Same 



THIRD YEAR 

Physics 

English Literature 
United States Constitu- 
tion 



Third Term 
Algebra 
Arithmetic 
Physiology 



Trigonometry 
General History 
Rhetoric 

Physics 
Physiology 
Political Economy 



FOURTH YEAR 

Chemistry Chemistry 

Astronomy Mental Science 

English Classics English Classics 

Theme writing throughout the last three years. 
for English History or Political Science in the third year, or for Mental Science 
and Astronomy in the fourth year. 



Geology 
Mental Science 
American Classics 
German or French elective 



German-English Course 
first year 
Substitute German for Etymology, Latin, and Physiology. 



' Annual Report President oj Board of Education, pp. 293-96. 
^Annual Report School Board, 1884, p. 54. 



30 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



SECOND YEAR 

Substitute German for General History. 

THIRD YEAR 

Substitute German for English History, United States Constitution, and 
Political Economy. 

MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, 1884 



First Term 
Chemistry 
English History 
German 

Civil and Literary His- 
tory 



German-English Course 
fourth year 

Second Term 

Chemistry 

Civil and Literary His- 
tory 

United States Constitu- 
tion 

German 



Third Term 
Geology 

Political Economy 
German 

Civil and Literary 
History 



General History elective for mathematics in the second year. 



Algebra 

English Composition 

Latin Grammar 



Latin-English Course 

first year 
Algebra 

English Grammar 
Latin Lessons 



Algebra 

Physiology 

Latin Grammar Les- 



SECOND year 



Geometry 

Biology 

Caesar 



Same 



third year 



Trigonometry 

Rhetoric 

Cicero 



Physics Same Physics 

English Literature Physiology 

Cicero Virgil 

FOURTH YEAR 

English History Civil Government 

English Classics English Classics 

Virgil Eclogs 

German or French elective for English Literature, Physiology, and English 
Classics of the third and fourth years for those desiring to prepare for College. 



Roman History 
Two elective studies 



Fall Term 
Latin or German 
Physiology 
Algebra 



SANDUSKY, OHIO, 1889' 

Regular Course 
first year 

Winter Term 
Latin or German 
Civil Government 
Algebra 



Spring Term 
Latin or German 
Physical Geography 
Algebra 



' Annual Report Board of Education, 188Q, pp. 80-82. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



31 



Arithmetic, 1 
Bookkeeping, 1 
Drawing, 1 

Latin or German 
Geometry 
Physics 
Arithmetic, 1 
Drawing, 1 



Latin or German 
Rhetoric 
Geology 
Drawing, 1 



Latin or German 
English Literature 
Roman History or 
Bookkeeping 



Arithmetic, 1 
Bookkeeping, 1 
Drawing, 1 

Latin or German 
Geometry or Trigo- 
nometry 
Chemistry 
Arithmetic, 1 
Drawing, I 

Latin or German 
English History 
Botany 
Drawing, 1 



Arithmetic, 1 
Bookkeeping, 1 
Drawing, 1 

SECOND YEAR 

Latin or German 
Geometry 
Physics, 4 weeks 
Chemistry, 8 
Arithmetic, 1 
Drawing, 1 

THIRD YEAR 

Latin or German 
Astronomy 
Rhetoric, 4 weeks 
English History, 8 
Drawing, 1 

FOURTH YEAR 

Latin or German 
English Literature or 

English Grammar 
Greek History or Natu- 
ral Philosophy 
Drawing, 1 

Elocution, Composition, and Music throughout the course. Four recitations 
per week except where otherwise stated. 

English Course 

FIRST year: same as General Course, except English substituted for Latin 
or German. 

SECOND year: American History substituted for Latin or German, or Gen- 
eral History substituted. 

THIRD year; History or Bookkeeping, Commercial Law, and Reviews sub- 
stituted for Latin or German. 

No Fourth Year offered in the English Course. 



Latin or German, 2 
Algebra, 2 
Arithmetic, 2 
History of Mental 

Philosophy, 4 
Essays, 2 



COLUMBUS, OHIO, 1889' 
General Literary Course 



First Half Year 
Algebra 

Latin or German 
English 

Plane Geometry 
Latin or German 
Ancient History and 
English 



FIRST YEAR 



SECOND YEAR 



Second Half Year 
Algebra 

Latin or German 
Physiology and Hygiene 

Algebra 

Latin or German 
Mediaeval and Modern 
History and English 



' Annual Report Board of Education. 1889, pp. 322-23. 



32 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



THIRD YEAR 



Latin or German 
Chemistry 
Geometry 
English 



Latin or German 
Enghsh Literature 
Physics 



FOURTH YEAR 



Latin or German 

Chemistry and Trigo- 
nometry 

Botany and English 

United States Constitu- 
tion 

English Literature 

Physics 

Arithmetic and English 

Grammar 

Astronomy 



English Course 

first year 
Substitutes English Composition, one year, and Botany one-half year for 
Latin or German. 

SECOND YEAR 

Substitutes Physical Geography and Civil Government for Latin or German. 

THIRD YEAR 

Substitutes Rhetoric and Composition for Latin or German. Also substi- 
tutes Physics, one-half year, for Trigonometry and Chemistry. 

FOURTH YEAR 

First Half Second Halt 

United States History English Literature 

English Literature Chemistry 

Chemistry Arithmetic and English 

Astronomy (optional) Grammar 

Astronomy 

COLUMBUS, OHIO, 1889' 
Business Course 



FIRST YEAR 



First Term 
Algebra 

Phonography and Pen- 
manship 
English 



second YEAR 



Mental and Written 
Arithmetic 

Phonography and Pen- 
manship 

Physical Geography 



Second Term 

Algebra 

Phonography and Pen- 
manship 

Physical Geography and 
Hygiene 

Arithmetic 
English 

Phonography and Pen- 
manship 
Civil Government 



' Annual Report of Board of Education, 1889, pp. 322-23. 



REPRESENTATIXE COURSES OF STUDY 



33 



THIRD YEAR 



Bookkeeping and Prac- 
tice in Phonography 
Geometry and Chemistry 



FOURTH YEAR 



General History 
EngHsh Literature 
Reviews 
Physics 



Bookkeeping and Prac- 
tice in Phonography 
Geometry and Chemistry 
English and Trigonometry 

English Literature 
Physics 
Reviews 
Astronomy 



SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS, 1890' 

Four different courses are provided: English, German-English, Latin-English 
and Classical. These courses are not printed separately, however, and are made 
up of certain required studies and electives. The subjects, the names of which 
are italicized, are required. 

Course of Study 





first year 




Fall Term 


Winter Term 


Spring Term 


English 


English 


English 


A Igebra 


A Igebra 


Algebra 


Zoology 


Zoology, Bookkeeping 


Bookkeeping 


Latin or German 


Latin or German 


Latin or German 


Historical Reading 


Historical Reading 

SECOND year 


Historical Reading 


English 


English 


English 


Geometry 


Geometry 


Geometry 


Physical Geography 


Botany 


Botany 


Latin or German 


Latin or German 


Latin or German 


Historical Reading 


Historical Reading 
third year 


Historical Reading 


English 


English 


English 


Arithmetic 


Algebra 


Geometry 


Natural Philosophy 


Natural Philosophy 


Natural Philosophy 


Latin, Greek, or Ger- 


Latin, Greek, or Ger- 


Latin, Greek, or Ger- 


man 


man 


man 


Historical Reading 


Historical Reading 

FOURTH YEAR 


Physiology 


English 


English 


English 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


Astronomy 


Astronomy, Geology 


Geology 


Latin, Greek, or Ger- 


Latin, Greek, or Ger- 


Latin, Greek, or Ger- 


man 


man 


man 


Trigonometry 


Political Economy 


Political Economy 


Historical Reading 


Civil Government 


Civil Government 


Industrial Drawing, 


Composition, and Rhetorical 


Exercises through the 



' Annual Report Public Schools, 1890, p. 54. 



34 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



First Term 

Algebra 

Grammar 

United States History 

Dictation Work 

Arithmetic 

Rhetoric 

Chemistry 



MORRISON, ILLINOIS, 1888' 

FIRST YEAR 
Second Term Third Term 

Algebra Algebra 

Grammar Rhetoric 

United States History Bookkeeping 
Reading 

SECOND YEAR 

Arithmetic 
English Literature 
Natural Philosophy 



Geometry 
Zoology 
Ancient History 

Latin is optional two 
out the entire course. 



THIRD YEAR 

Geometry 
Geology 
Ancient History 
Drawing 
years. Declamations and 



Botany 

English and American 

Literature 
Natural Philosophy 



Trigonometry 
Physiology 
Civil Government 
Astronomy 
recitations continue through- 



ATTICA, INDIANA, 1895' 

The High School Course 
first year 



First Semester 




Second Semester 


Commercial Arithmetic 




Bookkeeping and Busi- 


Elementary Latin 




ness Practice 


Physiology 




Elementary Latin 


English — 3 recitations in 




Zoology 


Literature, and 2 in 




English — same as first 


Composition 


second YEAR 


semester 


Algebra 




Algebra 


Latin 




Latin 


Zoology 




Botany 


General History — 4 times 




History and English — 


a week 




same as first semester 


Composition — 1 day per 






week 


THIRD YEAR 




Algebra 




Algebra 


Latin 




Latin 


Physics 




Chemistry 


English Authors — 3 days 




English — same as first 


per week 




semester 


Composition — 2 days per 


week 





• Report of Public Schools, 1888, p. 13. 
' Report and Manual, 1895, p. 45. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



35 



FOURTH YEAR 



Geometry 

Latin 

Civics 

American Literature — 3 

days per week 
Composition — 2 days per 

week 



Geometry 
Latin 

Social Science 
English — same as first 
semester 



EVANSTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, 1894' 
Classical Course 



FIRST YEAR 




First Term Second Term 


Third Term 


Latin Latin 


Latin 


Physical Geography 15 English Historj', 23 


Physiology 


weeks weeks 




English Physiology 




Drawing through the year. 




SECOND YEAR 




Caesar Caesar 


Caesar 


Algebra Algebra 


Civics 


Ancient History Greek 


Greek 


English alternating with drawing. 




THIRD YEAR 




Geometry Geometry 


Arithmetic or solid 


Cicero Cicero 


Geometry 


Greek Greek 


Cicero 




Greek 


FOURTH YEAR 





Virgil, Greek, Physics, French, or German throughout the year. 

Latin-Scientific Course 
First year is the same as the Classical Course. 

Second year Zoology and Botany instead of Ancient History and Greek. 
Third year General History- instead of Greek. 
Fourth year English Literature instead of Greek. 

Modern-Language Course 
This is the same as the Latin-Scientific Course except that German takes the 
place of Latin after the first year and French is required during the Senior Year. 

English Course 
First-year Bookkeeping and Arithmetic instead of Latin. 
Second-year Rhetoric and Civics instead of Latin. 

Third-year Plane and Solid Geometry, Chemistry, Political Economy, 
Astronomy. 

Fourth-year Physics, General History and English Literature. 



1 Foui-page pamphlet. 



36 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, 1894' 

Six Years' College Preparatory Course 
sixth class — first year 
Latin, 5 Penmanship and Draw- 

English, 4 ing, 2 

Arithmetic and Geome- Physiology and Hygiene, 

try, 4 1 

American History, 4 German, 1 

FIFTH CLASS — SECOND YEAR 

Latin, S English and American 

English, 4 History, 3 

Algebra and Geometry, 4 Drawing, 2 

German or French, 2 

FOURTH CLASS — THIRD YEAR 

Latin, 4 Botany, 4, Yi year 

English, 4 Elements of Chemistry, 

Algebra and Geometry, 4 4, }^ year 

until March, 1 Drawing, 2 

Arithmetic with applica- 
tions of Geometry, 4; 
after March, 1 

THIRD CLASS — FOURTH YEAR 

Latin, 4 Greek, 3 

English including Myth- Plane Geometry, 4 

ology, 4 Drawing, 2 

French or German, 2 Elements of Geology, 1 

SECOND CLASS — FIFTH YEAR 

Latin, 4 Grecian and Roman His- 

English, 2 tory, 4 

Greek, 4 Plane Trigonometry and 

French or German, 2 Review Algebra, 4 

Drawing, 1 

FIRST CLASS — SIXTH YEAR 

Latin, 5 English, German, French, 

French or German, 2 and American History, 

Greek, 4 3 

English, 2 Physics, 4 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, 1895^ 

COURSE OF STUDY, ENGLISH HIGH AND MANUAL TRAIN- 
ING SCHOOL 

Academic 
first year 

First Term Second Term Third Terra 

Algebra, 4 Algebra, 4 Algebra, 4 

» Annual Report Board of Education, 1895, p. 321. 
« Annual Report Board of Education, 1895, pp. 319-20. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



37 



Biology (Zoology), 4 
Rhetoric and Composi- 
tion, 4 
Manual Training 
Mechanical Drawing, 4 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
Joinery and Wood-turn- 
ing, 10 
Lectures on wood 



Geometry, 3 
Physics, 3 
General History, 3 
English or French, 3 
Book Reviews 
Mechanical Drawing, 4 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
Foundry and Black- 
smith Work, 10 
Lectures on iron 



Solid Geometrj' or 

Shorthand, 3 
Civil Government, 3 
Chemistry, 3 
English or French, 3 
Book Reviews 
Mechanical or Architect 

Drawing, 4 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
Machine Shopwork: 

Chipping, filing, and 
fitting, 10 



Biology (Zoology and 

Botany), 4 
Rhetoric and Composi- 
tion, 4 
Mechanical Drawing, 4 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
Cabinet Work and 
Bench Work, 10 
Lectures on wood 

SECOND YEAR 

Geometry, 3 

Physics, 3 
General History, 3 
Book Reviews, 3 
Mechanical Drawing, 4 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
English or French, 3 
Foundry and Black- 
smith Work, 10 
Lectures on iron 

THIRD YEAR 

Trigonometry or Book- 
keeping, 3 
Shorthand, continued 

and typewriting 

commenced 
Political Economy, 3 
English or French, 3 
Chemistry, 3 
Book Reviews 
Mechanical or Architect 

Drawing, 3 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
Machine Shopwork: 

Use of lathes and 

planer, 10 
Lectures on machinery 

and its work 



Biology (Botany), 4 
Rhetoric and Compo- 
sition, 4 
Mechanical Drawing, 

4 
Freehand Drawing, 1 
Pattern Work, 10 
Lectures on wood 



Geometry, 3 

Physics, 3 

General History, 3 

English or French, 3 

Book Reviews 

Mechanical Drawing, 
4 

Freehand Drawing, 1 

Foundry and Black- 
smith Work, 10 

Lectures on iron 

Higher Algebra or 
Typewriting, 3 

Political Economy, 3 

English or French, 3 

Chemistry 

Book Reviews 

Mechanical or Archi- 
tect Drawing, 4 

Freehand Drawing 

Machine Shopwork: 
Use of milling ma- 
chine, 10 

Lectures on machinery 
and its work 



WILMETTE, ILLINOIS, 18 



FIRST YEAR 



Scudder's Latin Lessons 
Geikie's Physiology 
Lockwood's Rhetoric 



Montogomery's English 

History 
Beren's Mythology 



' Course of study, 1898, p. 13. 



38 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



SECOND YEAR 



Kelsey's Caesar 
Wells's Algebra 
Boyer's Biology 

Kelsey's Cicero 
Wentworth's Geometry 



THIRD YEAR 



Bergen's Botany 
Slections from Literature 



Myer's General History 
English Classics 



COLUMBUS, OHIO, 1897' 

Gener,vl Literary Course 
Unless otherwise indicated, five recitations per week. 



English, 4 

Physical Geography, 4 

Latin or German 

English, 4 
Ancient History, 4 

English, 4 

French and English His- 
tory, 4 
Latin or German, 4 

Solid Geometry 
Advanced Algebra and 

Plane Trigonometry, 4 
Physiology and Botany, 4 



first year 



SECOND YEAR 



THIRD YEAR 



Algebra, 4 
Arithmetic, 1 
Drawing, 2 

Latin or German 
Algebra and Geometry 



ONE ELECTIVE 



Chemistry, 4 
French, 4 
Greek, 4 
Latin 
German 



FOURTH YEAR 



English Essays, 1 
United States History 

and Civics, 4 
Latin or German, 4 

Physics, 4 
Greek, 4 



ONE ELECTIVE 



German, 5 
French, 4 
Latin, 5 



COLUMBUS, OHIO, 1897 
English and Commercial Course 
FIRST year 
English, 4 ' Physical and Commercial 

Arithmetic Geography, 4 ^ 

Civil Government Drawing,'_2 jg 

second year 't~i 

English, 4 Bookkeeping,_4 

1 Annual Report Board of Education, 1897, pp. 228-29. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



39 



Phonography 

German 

Latin 

English, 4 

Phonography 

German 

Latin 

English, 4 

Business Methods, Com- 
mercial and Legal 
Forms, 4 

.iistory and Civics, 4 

Phonography, 4 
German, 4 
Latin, 4 



TWO ELECTIVES 



THIRD YEAR 



TWO ELECTIVES 



Algebra 

General History, 4 



Business Methods, 4 

Algebra and Geometry 
General History, 4 



FOURTH YEAR 



ONE ELECTIVE 



Solid Geometry, Ad- 
vanced Algebra, and 
Trigonometry, 4 

Chemistry, 4 

Physics, 4 



JAMESTOWN, OHIO, 1896' 

FIRST YEAR 



First Semester 
Algebra 
English, 3 
Physics, 2 
Latin, 5 
Drawing once a week throughout the year. 

SECOND YEAR 

Algebra, 2 
Plane Geometrj', 3 
English, 2 
General History, 3 
Caesar 



Second Semester 
Algebra 
English, 2 
Botany, 3 
Caesar, 5 



Plane Geometry, 3 
English, 2 
General History, 3 
Caesar 



Solid Geometry 
English, 2 
Physics, 3 
Cicero 

Physical Geography, 3 
Arithmetic, 2 
Civil Government 
Virgil 



' Rules and Regulations, 1896, pp. 19-20. 



THIRD YEAR 



FOURTH YEAR 



English, 2 
Physics, 3 
Bookkeeping 
Cicero 

Physical Geography, 2 
United States History, 3 
Arithmetic, 3 
Grammar, 2 
Virgil 



40 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



APPLETON. WISCONSIN, 


1900' 




Modern Classical Course 




FIRST YEAR 




First Term 


Second Term 


Third Term 


Algebra 


Algebra 


Algebra 


Ancient History 


Ancient History and 


French History 


Latin 


French History 


Latin 


English Composition, 2 


Latin 


English Composition, 


Expression, 2 


English Composition, 2 


2 




Expression, 2 


Expression, 2 




SECOND YEAR 




English History 


English History and 


Constitution 


Geology and Physical 


Constitution 


Botany 


Geography 


Geology and Botany 


Caesar, 3 


Caesar and Latin Com- 


Caesar, 3 


Latin Composition, 2 


position 


Latin Composition, 2 


Literary Reading, 3 


Literary Reading, 3 


Literary Reading, 3 


Expression, 2 


Expression, 2 


Expression, 2 

THIRD YEAR 




Geometry 


Geometry 


Geometry 


German 


German 


German 


Cicero, 4 


Cicero, 4 


Cicero, 4 


Latin Composition, 1 


Latin Composition, 1 


Latin Composition, 1 


Literary Reading, 3 


Literary Reading, 3 


Literary Reading, 3 


Expression, 2 


Expression, 2 

FOURTH YEAR 


Expression, 2 


Physics 


Physics 


Physics 


German 


German 


German 


Virgil 


Virgil 


Virgil 


Expression, 1 


Expression, 1 


Theory and Art of 


Reviews, 3 


Reviews, 3 

German Course 
first year 


Teaching 


Substitute German for Latin. 






SECOND YEAR 




Substitute German 


for Latin and Physiology for Geology. 




THIRD YEAR 




Substitute Geology 


and Chemistry for Latin. 

FOURTH YEAR 




Substitute Literature, and Political Economy, 


Psychology and Pedagogy 


for' German and Latin. 







APPLETON, WISCONSIN, 1900 

English Course 
first year 
Substitute English for Latin. 

1 Calalog, 1900, pp. 54-61. 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 41 

SECOND YEAR 

Substitute Rhetoric and Composition for Latin and Physiology for Geology. 

THIRD YEAR 

Omit Library Reading and substitute Geology and Chemistry for German 
and Literature for Latin. 

FOURTH YEAR 

Same as German Course. 

Commercial Course 
first year 
Substitute Bookkeeping for Latin. 

SECOND YEAR 

Substitute English for Science and Shorthand and Typewriting for Latin. 

THIRD YEAR 

Substitute Physiology and Commercial Arithmetic for German and Short- 
hand and Typewriting for Latin. 

FOURTH YEAR 

Substitute Shorthand and Typewriting for Latin and Political Economy, 
Commercial Law and Pedagogy for German. 

APPLETON, WISCONSIN, 1900 

Manual Training Course 
first year 

First Semester Second Semester 

Algebra Algebra 

Ancient History French History 

Drawing: Drawing: 

a) Notes on Experimental a) Block and Freehand Let- 

Geometry, 3 tering 

b) Geometrical Solution of b) Shade Lining 

Problems with Draught- c) Tracing, Blue Printing and 
ing Instruments, 2 Mounting Prints (9 

Shopwork, 10: weeks) 

a) Instruction in Construe- d) Freehand Drawing (from 

tion, care, and use of models) 

Bench Tools e) Dimension Sketches, for 

b) Joinery Mechanical Drawings 

c) Instruction and Practice in (from models), (9 

putting Bench Tools in weeks) 

order. Shopwork, 10: 

Composition and Expression as a) Joinery, 12 

in other courses b) Wood Carving, (6 weeks) 

Composition and Expression 
as in other courses 
The shopwork includes a finished article — such as a stand, table grille, which 
shall be, as far as possible, the product of the pupil's work. 



42 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



SECOND 

English History 

Physiology 

Drawing: 

a) Mechanical Drawing (from 

Copy) 

b) Tracing and Blue-Printing 

from each drawing 
Shopwork : 

o) Lathe-work in wood (hand 
tools) 

Literary Reading and Expres- 
sion same as other 
courses 



YEAR 

Civil Government 

Botany 

Drawing: 

a) Mechanical Drawing (from 

models) 

b) Tracing and Blue Printing 

from each drawing 

c) Notes on Pattern Making 

Molding and Casting, 3 
Shopwork: 

a) Pattern Making 

b) Molding 

c) Casting (in brass, zinc and 

Plaster of Paris) 
Literary Reading and Expres- 
sion same as other 



APPLETON, WISCONSIN, 1900 
Manual Training Course 



THIRD 


YEAR 


First Semester 


Second Semester 


Geometry 


Geometry 


Geology and Physical Geogra- 


Chemistry 


phy 


Drawing: 


Drawing: 


a) Elementary Mechanism 


a) Pattern and Machine 


b) Notes on Forging, Welding 


Drawing (designing) 


and Tool Making, 3 


Shopwork 


Shop-work 


a) Pattern Making 


a) Forging (in iron and steal) 


b) Molding 


b) Welding 


c) Casting (in brass, zinc and 


c) Case Hardening 


Plaster of Paris) 


d) Hardening and Tempering 


Literary Reading and Expres- 


Steel 


sion same as other 


Literary Reading and Expres- 


courses 


sion same as other 




courses 


FOURTH year 


Physics 


Physics 


Literature 


Literature 


Drawing: 


Drawing: 


Orthographic Projection 


Perspective Projection, (9 


Shopwork : 


weeks) 


Bench Work in metals (6 


Shopwork: 


weeks) 


Machine Work in metals 


Machine Work in metals, 12 


Machine Finishing, Polishing, 


Expression, 1 ; Reviews, 3 


and Grinding 




Expression, 1 ; Reviews, 3 



II 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 



43 



Lack of uniformity in subjects ofTered is revealed by the Courses 
found on 20-42. The following is an analysis of six of these with 
respect to subjects included. Subjects placed in parentheses are 
not ofTered in both schools. Others are common to both. 



MADISON, WISCONSIN, 1862> 



CINCINNATI, OHIO, 1862^ 



MATHEMATICS 



Arithmetic 
Elementary Algebra 
(Higher Algebra) 
Geometry 



Arithmetic 
Algebra 
Geometry 
(Trigonometry) 



(Grammar and Analysis) 
(Work Analysis) 
Rhetoric 
Literature 

(Botany) 

(Physiology) 

(Physical Geography) 

(Geology) 

Natural Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 

(United States History) 
(Political Economy) 
Ancient History 



SCIENCE 



(Composition) 

Rhetoric 

Literature 



Natural Philosophy 

Chemistry 

Astronomy 



SOCIAL STUDIES 



(Mediaeval History) 
(Modern History) 
(Constitution United States) 
Ancient History 



Latin 
Greek 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE 

Latin 
Greek 
(German) 
(French) 

COMMERCI.\L SUBJECTS 

(Bookkeeping) 
(Commercial Forms) 



(Mental Philosophy) 
(Moral Philosophy) 
(Butler's Analogy) 
(Logic) 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 



' Annual School Report, 1863, pp. 22-23. 

• Report oj Common Schools oj Cincinnnti, Ohio, 1862, pp. 70-71. 



44 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



AUBURN, INDIANA, 1882' MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, 1884^ 

MATHEMATICS 



Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 



(Reading) 
(Spelling) 
(Writing) 
Grammar 



SCIENCE 



Physiology 
Natural Philosophy 
Chemistry 
(Physical Geography) 



Arithmetic 
Algebra 
Geometry 
(Trigonometry) 

Grammar 
(Rhetoric) 
(Literature)' 
(Classics) 

Physiology 

Physics 

Chemistry 

(Astronomy) 

(Biology) 

(Geology) 



(United States History) 
General History 
Civil Government 



Latin 



(Bookkeeping) 



SOCIAL STUDIES 

General History 

Civil Government 

(English History) 

(Roman History) 

(Civil and Literary History) 

(United States Constitution) 

FOREIGN LANGUAGE 

Latin 

(German) 

(French) 

COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 



JAMESTOWN, OHIO, 1897* APPLETON, WISCONSIN, 1900* 

MATHEMATICS 

Algebra 



(Arithmetic) 

Algebra 

Geometry 

English, l}/2 years 

Physiology 
Physical Geography 
Botany 
Physics 



ENGLISH 



Geometry 



English, 3 years 

Physiology 

Physical Geography 

Botany 

Physics 

(Chemistry) 

(Geology) 



'Rules am! ReguLilions 0/ (lie Public Schools, 1882-83, pp. 9-!0. 
'Annual Report School Board, 1884, p. 54. 
8 Probably History of English Literature. 

• Rules and Rei^ulalions, pp. 19-20. 

* Catalog of the Public Schools, pp. 54-61, 



II 



REPRESENTATIVE COURSES OF STUDY 45 

SOCIAL STUDIES' 

(General History) (Ancient History) 

(United States History) (English History) 

(Civil Government) (French History) 

(Political Economy) 
(Constitution) 

FOREIGN LANGUAGE 

Latin Latin 

(German) 

COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 

Bookkeeping (Bookkeeping) 

(Short Hand) 
(Typewriting) 
(Commercial Law) 
(Commercial Arithmetic) 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 

(Pedagogy) (Psychology) 
(Manual Training, 4 years) 

The foregoing courses selected for analysis were chosen from the 
following periods: 1860-65, 1881-85, and 1896-1900. A compara- 
tive study of courses chosen from the other periods reveals the same 
wide range of difference in subjects offered. Even greater differ- 
ence is found in connection with some of the courses. For example, 
a comparison of Wilmette, Illinois, 1898,^ and Columbus, Ohio, 
1897, and Waterloo, Iowa, 1870,' and Cincinnati, Ohio, 1872, makes 
this clear. It is also evident that neither locality nor population, 
except within very broad limits, were determining factors. 

It will be observed that there was more uniformity in the field 
of mathematics than in other fields. This became increasingly 
so as the practice of offering higher mathematics, quite common 
in 1860, gradually declined to the close of the century. In the 
other fields marked lack of uniformity prevailed. Some allowance 
should be made for confusion in terminology in English and the 
social studies, but even when this is done, the practice in different 
schools varied widely both in amount of work offered and in the 
subjects as well. As would be expected, commercial and miscel- 
laneous subjects manifest the least degree of uniformity. Details 
relating to each school are given in the Appendix, Tables A-H. 
For details concerning the number of schools offering each subject 
and for summaries, see Tables 1 1- IX and X. 

1 It is verj' probable that lack of uniformity appears to be greater than it really was on account of 
confusion in terminology. 
! Cf. pp. 37-38. 
= Cf. pp. 24-25. 



CHAPTER IV 

NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED; TITLES AND ORGANIZATION 

1. NUMBER AND TITLES OF COURSES 

TABLE I 

The following table gives a summary of the number of courses 
offered by the various schools in each period and shows the designa- 
tions of the courses. 

\. — TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1860-65 
Number of Courses Number of Schools 

1 12 

2 6 

3 2 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Classical 7 

English and Classical 1 

English 2 

General 3 

Latin-English 1 

Regular 1 

Normal 2 

2. — TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1866-70 
Number of Courses Number of Schools 

1 10 

2 9 

4 1 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Classical 8 

English 3 

English and Latin 2 

English and German 1 

General 3 

3. — TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1871-75 
Number of Courses Number of Schools 

1 9 

2 9 

3 1 

5 1 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Classical 8 

College Preparatory 2 

Commercial-English 1 

English 5 

English-German 1 

46 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 



47 



English-Latin 1 

Latin 1 

General 5 

Scientific 1 

4. — TWENTY-FIVE SCHOOLS, 1876-80 
Number of Courses Number of Schools 

1 17 

2 4 

3 3 

4 1 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Classical 4 

Commercial 1 

Commercial-English 1 

English 2 

General 3 

Latin-Scientific 1 

Modern Classical 1 

Preparatory 1 

Preparatory-English 1 

Scientific 2 

Scientific-Engineering 1 

Technological 1 

5. — TWENTY-FIVE SCHOOLS, 1881-85 
Number of Courses Number of Schools 

3 14 

2 5 

3 4 

4 2 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Ancient Classical 1 

Classical 6 

English 4 

English-Science 1 

General 2 

German 1 

German-English 2 

Latin 4 

Latin-English 2 

Latin-German 1 

Latin-Scientific 1 

Modern Classical 1 

Modern Language 1 

6. — THIRTY-FIVE SCHOOLS, 1886-90 

Number of Courses Number of Schools 

1 20 

2 7 

3 5 



48 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

4 1 

5 2 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Academic 1 

Ancient Classical 1 

Business 1 

Commercial 1 

Commercial-English 1 

Classical 5 

English 9 

French-English 1 

General 3 

General-Literary 1 

General Science 1 

German 3 

German-English 1 

Latin 5 

Latin-English 1 

Latin-German 1 

Modern Classical 3 

Normal 1 

Preparatory-English 1 

Regular 1 

7. — SIXTY SCHOOLS, 1891-95 
Numljcr of Courses Number of Schools 

1 28 

2 13 

3 9 

4 5 

5 3 

6 2 

Designation of Courses Number of Schools 

Business 4 

Commercial 2 

Classical 9 

College Preparatory 1 

English 20 

English and French 1 

English and German 1 

English-Scientific 4 

English-German 1 

German 4 

German-English 1 

General Science 3 

General 1 

German-Scientific 1 

Latin 17 

Latin-English 3 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 49 

Latin-German 4 

Latin-Scientific 4 

Latin-Greek 1 

Literary and Science 1 

Modern Classical 3 

Modern Language 3 

Normal 1 

Preparatory 1 

Practical 1 

Science 2 

Scientific 6 

8.— SIXTY SCHOOLS, 1896-1900 

Numhcr of Courses Number of Schools 

1 25 

2 12 

3 12 

4 8 

6 2 

7 1 

Designation of Courses Number of Scfiools 

Ancient Classical 1 

Business 2 

College Preparatory 1 

Commercial 6 

Complete Commercial 1 

Shorter Commercial 1 

Classical 12 

English 1 

English-Science 24 

English-Scientific 3 

English-Latin 1 

English-Commercial 3 

English-German 2 

Engineering 1 

French-English 1 

General 3 

General Literary 1 

General Science 3 

German 3 

German-English 3 

German-Scientific 1 

Literary 1 

Language 1 

Latin 16 

Latin-Science 1 

Latin-Scientific 3 

Latin-English 3 

Latin-German 3 



50 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Modern-Classical 1 

Manual Training for Boys 1 

Manual Training for Girls 1 

Natural Science 1 

Preparatory 1 

Philosophical 1 

Science 2 

Scientific 7 

2. CURRICULA ORGANIZATION 

The courses of study shown on pages 20-42 and Table I show 
that the criteria used in curricula organization were of the same 
generalized sort as prevailed in the early schools discussed in 
chapter I. Two purposes of high-school instruction are indicated: 
that of preparing for college, and that of preparing for life. The 
absence of definite standards for the organization of curricula for 
the latter purpose is very evident. Those designed to prepare for 
higher institutions, particularly in the earlier years, offered a very 
narrow range of subjects determined, apparently, wholly by en- 
trance requirements.' As requirements changed, these courses 
changed, and the tendency to include in them subjects not required 
for entrance is more marked as time goes on.^ 

In the case of non-preparatory college courses, there is no appar- 
ent demand or complex of demands sufficiently clear in purpose or 
definite in influence to secure any sort of uniformity in length of 
course, organization, or subjects offered. The only exception to this 
is found in the comparatively few business or commercial, normal 
and manual training courses. The latter do not appear until near 
the close of the period, and even then are rare. The normal 
courses were usually only one or two years in length, emphasizing 
the common branches and devoting some attention to pedagogy' 
and less frequently to psychology. They recognized rather vaguely 
a demand for the training of teachers, although the attempt to meet 
the demand was meager and they reveal clearly that the purpose 
was to prepare for teachers' examinations rather than for the 
actual work of teaching. At best they offered nothing more than 
was provided by other courses designated by the use of other 
titles. For example, Madison, Wisconsin, offered four courses in 
1883 having the titles, Ancient Classical, Modern Classical, Science, 

1 Ct. p. 20. 

' a. pp. 23 and 28, 

> Cf. p. 23. 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 51 

and English and each of these offered pedagogy and reviews of the 
common branches. 

Toward the close of the century a few schools offered courses 
providing a considerable range of commercial subjects,' but the 
rule was a short course providing a ver>' meager offering of commer- 
cial subjects. Even in the four-year commercial courses, as will be 
observed by reference to pages 32 and 41, the offering of commercial 
subjects was limited. In the former, none were offered in the last 
year, and in the latter, none the first half of the first year, and in 
third and fourth years, part of the work was elective. 

For the most part, courses bearing such titles as Business or 
Commercial were not essentially different from other courses which 
included a meager offering of commercial subjects except that they 
usually provided only one or two years of work. Until the last 
years of the nineteenth century, industrial and commercial demands 
had very little influence in determining the character of high-school 
curricula. On the whole it is very clear that only educational 
ideals of the most generalized sort determined differentiation in 
curricula except for those students who were preparing for higher 
institutions. 

Further confusion is added by the fact that many courses 
undertook to perform both functions — that of preparing for college 
and preparing for life. These were always almost identical in that 
they provided the college entrance subjects, but frequently dif- 
fered widely in the other subjects included.^ There are no apparent 
well-defined standards for determining electives. In many of the 
courses, subjects which may be substituted for college-entrance 
subjects are not indicated. For example, in the course on page 21, 
Latin and Greek may be substituted for other subjects, but the 
substitutions allowed are not indicated. On page 22, we find the 
statement that Latin, German, French, and Spanish are optional. 
It is probable that optional means elective, but there is no indica- 
tion of what subjects are to be displaced. In the course on page 
24, it is almost certain that several electives are provided, but there 
is no hint with regard to what these are. These are but examples of 
the confusion which one finds in a study of these courses. 

As has been pointed out, many of the schools offered nominally 
only one course. Table I reveals that a maximum of three-fifths 

' Cf. pp. 31 and 38. 

"Cf. pp. 21, 22, 23, 24,31,33. 



52 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

(1860-65) and a minimum of five-twelfths (1896-1900) of the 
schools provided a single course. This does not mean, of course, 
that no electives were provided and that all the students pursued 
the same subjects. On the contrary, it is very probable that single 
courses usually provided electives. ' It is not possible to state the 
proportion of such courses with any degree of accuracy since it is 
not clear in some cases whether each student carried three, four, or 
more subjects.- The general rule, no doubt, was four subjects 
reciting five times per week as a maximum, and in case a course 
provided more than this number, electives were offered. In some 
cases the same rule did not hold throughout the course.' It is also 
true that five recitations per week in each subject was not the 
universal practice.'' Neither was the minimum number of recita- 
tions per week always twenty when four or more subjects were 
carried by each student. In some cases* it seems certain that more 
than twenty recitations were required, and in others^ this was 
probably true. In other cases where four subjects was the minimum 
less than twenty recitations per week was the rule.^ 

The plan of parallel courses rather than that of single courses 
with electives in vogue in the early high schools continued in favor 
to the close of the century. The tendency to multiply both courses 
and titles is apparent. In the period 1860-65, the average number 
of courses for schools offering more than one was two and one- 
fourth, and seven different titles were used. The average for the 
period 1896-1900 was three and one-sixth courses and thirty-six 
titles were employed. The proportion of single courses, as has been 
pointed out, decreased during this same period from three-fifths 
to five-twelfths. In spite of the tendency to multiply both courses 
and titles, there was little gain with respect either to clearly defined 
educational aims or to definite use of titles. It is probably true 
that the rapid growth of the high-school movement and the con- 
stantly increasing enrollment resulted in this multiplication in an 
attempt to meet the demands of the various classes of students 
enrolled. The demands, however, were evidently not sufficiently 

^ Courses given on pp. 24, 25, 26, 28, and 37 are examples of single courses with electives 
Those found on pp. 25, 27, 28, 34, and 36 apparently provided no electives. 
"Ct. pp. 20, 22, 23, 26. 
»Cf. pp. 21, 22, 28, 34. 
•Cf. pp. 21, 24,30. 
» Cf. pp. 29, 33, 36. 
» Cf. p. 36. 
» Cf. p. 38 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 53 

specific to indicate the needs of these different classes. At any 
rate, both titles and courses lack evidence of such demands being 
met, if they were made known to those responsible for curricula 
making. 

A few titles furnish rather definite information concerning 
purpose and content of courses. This is true, for example, of the 
college preparatory courses having such titles as Preparatory, 
College Preparatory, and Classical. On the whole, however, titles 
furnish very little information concerning either purpose or content. 
Such titles as General, Regular, and the like, furnish no clue concern- 
ing what was offered or what was left out. Greek was not included but 
there was a lack of uniformity in regard to other foreign languages.' 
In the earlier years the two purposes of the school were made clear 
by the use of the terms "Classical Department" and "English 
Department" or "General Department." The former term indi- 
cated a comparatively narrow range of subjects including always 
Latin and Greek and the purpose was to prepare for college. The 
latter terms signified the absence of ancient language and indicated 
a wider range of subjects including frequently the modern lan- 
guages.^ 

The word "English" as applied to departments or courses was 
used in the broad sense to indicate all subjects except Latin and 
Greek and retained this general meaning even after a multiplication 
of titles became an established practice. The more restricted use 
of the term, as now employed, was very rare prior to 1880,^ and 
even after this use became well established, English courses did not 
necessarily offer any more work in English than did the courses 
having other titles. For example, Springfield, Illinois, offered the 
same work in English in both the classical and English courses.* 
The difference is found in the substitution of science and mathemat- 
ics in the latter for Latin or German, and Greek in the former. 
The same is true as regards English in two courses, one classical 
and the other English offered by Shenandoah, Iowa, except that 
one-half year of etymology is substituted in the latter for Latin. ^ 
The other subjects substituted are science, social studies, and 

' Annual Report oj the Public Schools, Jacksonville, IlUnois, 1878, p. 76, and Second Annual Report of 
Trustees oj the Lakenew {Illinois) Bigh Schools, 1876, pp. 14-15. 

3 Annual Report Board oj Education, Detroit, Michigan, 1863, p. 63, and Annual Report Public Schools, 
Danville, Illinois, 1871, pp. 26-27. 

> Cl. Table X. 

' Annual Report of the Public Schools, Springfield, Illinois, 1887, pp. 56-57. 

6 Rules and Regulations: Public Schools, Shenand w^, Iowa, 1894-95, p. 23. 



54 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

bookkeeping. The only difference between the Latin and English 
courses offered by Lincoln, Nebraska, is that the latter offered no 
Latin and substituted bookkeeping, science, and the social studies.' 
Except for bookkeeping, however, the substitutions were not the 
same. It is true, of course, that English courses offered more work 
in English as time went on, but this was also true of other courses. 
The foregoing examples will, however, serve to illustrate the general 
sense in which the term continued to be used. The frequent use of 
the term as a course title, either alone or in combination, is revealed 
in Table L This seems to be very clear evidence of the survival and 
persistence of the educational ideal which gave rise to the English 
Classical School of Boston, later called the English High School.^ 

This loose distinction between an English education and a 
classical education is further illustrated by the absence or infre- 
quent use of titles indicating the presence in courses of other sub- 
jects. No course titles found in Table I indicate that the social 
studies were offered, although Tables II-IX show the relatively 
large number of schools offering these subjects, and Table XVIII 
indicates the comparatively large amount of time devoted to this 
field as compared with other subjects from which course titles are 
derived. Science is not recognized at all in course titles in the 
earlier years, and at no time is the recognition commensurate with 
the importance of this field. The infrequency of the use of the word 
"Science" or its derivatives is shown in Table I. It is particularly 
noticeable until after 1890, and then some such hyphenated title as 
English-Scientific, Latin-Scientific, and the like is commonly used. 

The term "Science" or "Scientific"' when used as course titles 
is no more reliable from the standpoint of determining the purpose 
or content of the course than is the term "English." The former 
terms were even less definite than the latter since they did not 
indicate the exclusion of ancient language. On the whole, however, 
these titles were justified since the courses so named usually offered 
a considerable amount of science. In the later years, these courses 
frequently included modern language, particularly German. 

Hyphenated titles such as Latin-English, Latin-Scientific, 
English-German, Latin-German, and the like, wholly absent in the 
earlier years, became relatively common by 1880. They invariably 

^General Regulations, Lincoln, Nebraska, High School, 1893, p. 15. 
' Cf. chap, i., pp. 2-3. 

' The word "science" or "scientific"' is used alone in only twenty out of approximately three hundred 
and twenty course titles. 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 55 

offered the subjects indicated in the titles but not infrequently 
different titles stood for practically the same subjects. Other titles 
such as General-Literary and Philosophical gave no clue concerning 
what subjects were offered since nothing peculiarly literary or 
philosophical is discoverable in the courses so named. 

It has been pointed out that course titles are deceiving and that 
distinctions between courses were often attempted where differences 
were negligible. In spite of this, however, it is evident that there 
was a growing consciousness that the generalized ideals determining 
the character of non-preparatory courses needed to be broken up 
into more specific ones. The introduction of commercial, normal, 
and industrial subjects, and also the use of titles indicating the 
presence of these subjects, is an evidence of this. But progress was 
very slow and differentiation of courses continued without much 
recognition being given to commercial and industrial demands. 
The superintendent of the Chicago schools in 1866 urged the impor- 
tance of a reorganization of the course of study in order to meet the 
"demands of the community."' He commends the German 
Realschule but specific recommendations are lacking except that 
he urges the teaching of drawing. Evidence is not lacking that there 
was serious opposition on the part of school officials to the introduc- 
tion of industrial courses into the high schools. As late as 1886, 
the president of the Chicago board in his report says: 

During the last few years the tendency has been too much toward the 
practical. The ideal has been thrown aside and everything is being measured 
by gold and silver standards. Educators even are being whirled down the stream 
and education is being measured by value in dollars and cents.^ 

He insists that the board has acted contrary to the spirit of the 
law and contends that the purpose of the school is to give a "founda- 
tion for an education" which is interfered with by an attempt to 
prepare for specific vocations. He further says that there is no 
place where the line can be drawn since it is "just as much the 
purpose of the public school to educate the surgeon as it is to educate 
the carpenter." 

The high school frequently referred to as the "people's school" 
was not so to any important extent as far as commercial and indus- 
trial courses were concerned until after the close of the nineteenth 
century. Preparation for specific vocations was left to private 

^Annual Report of Board of Education, 1866, pp. 46-51. 
'Ibid., 1886, pp. 18-19. 



56 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

schools such as commercial or business colleges, which were rela- 
tively numerous, and to the few manual training schools founded 
and maintained by private enterprise. The foundations, however, 
were laid in the high schools for the development of commercial 
and industrial education so marked in recent years. 

3. ORDER IN WHICH SUBJECTS APPEAR IN THE CURRICULA 

The order in which subjects appear in curricula is important 
for two reasons. First, it determines the character of education for 
those who drop out of school before graduation; and secondly, it 
determines the organization from the standpoint of sequence of 
courses. 

An interpretation of the courses used in Table I shows the fol- 
lowing for the several periods: 

Mathematics. — As would be expected, the following sequence 
obtained: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. The 
exception to this order is furnished by arithmetic and algebra. 
These two subjects were frequently offered simultaneously in the 
first year; in a few cases the former followed the latter immediately, 
and in about an equal number of cases it was offered after geometry. 
The tendency to place it immediately following algebra, increased 
toward the close. When it followed geometry, it was usually 
designated as a review subject.' 

Algebra was usually begun in the first year and rarely after the 
second. Geometry invariably followed algebra and was in turn 
followed by trigonometry and other higher mathematics. 

English. — The usual order in this field was grammar, composi- 
tion, rhetoric, and literature. The first named was rarely ofTered in 
any year except the first. Like arithmetic it is sometimes found as a 
review subject in the last year, but less frequently.^ Composition is 
not easily classified. In the earlier years it was frequently listed in a 
footnote along with other general exercises.' Classification is also 
made difficult by the fact that the mention of composition was 
frequently in connection with other English subjects. Three stages 
are quite well marked in this particular. In the early periods it was 
associated with grammar, later with rhetoric, and finally with 
literature. When not thus associated, however, it was rarely 
placed in any year except the first. 

' Cf. pp. 26 27. 

2 Cf. p. 26. 

' Cf. pp. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30. 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 57 

Rhetoric was found in all years of the course, but most frequently 
in the second and third with the former leading. The latter is 
particularly true of three-year courses. After about 1880 it is 
found more frequently in the first year which is probably owing to 
its association with composition. 

Literature, offered under various titles, was confined largely 
to the third and fourth years until about 1890. In fact, during the 
period 1891-95 it was ofTered after the second year in more than 70 
per cent of the schools. In the next five-year period this percentage 
had decreased to 60. Exact data are not easily available for any of 
the subjects in this field after the use of the term "English" as it is 
now employed, came into use. It is clear, however, that the use of 
literature as a source for composition work resulted after 1890 in its 
more frequent introduction into the earlier years of the course. 

Science. — The science subjects fall into two fairly well defined 
groups, those commonly found in the earlier years and those in the 
later years of the course. Physiology, physical geography, botany, 
and zoology belong to the first group, and physics, chemistry, 
geology, and astronomy to the second. While botany and zoology 
belong to the first group, these subjects show a greater tendency 
toward distribution over all the years than is the case in the other 
science subjects. This is particularly true of zoology. 

Physiology' was a first-year subject with a few schools offering 
it in the second year. It is rarely found after the second year. This 
condition was relatively permanent. 

Physical Geography^ belongs largely to the first two years with 
the emphasis rather decidedly upon the first year except for the 
periods 1886-90 and 1891-95. In the former, the ratio in favor of 
the second year was 4 to 3, and in the latter, the frequency of 
occurrence for the two years was equal. During the earlier periods 
it is not found at all in the last year, but toward the close there are a 
few cases in which it is ofTered in this year. 

Botany is found most frequently in the second year. The first 
year stands next in importance with the third year following closely. 
The fourth year is never represented by more than 5 per cent of the 
schools, and this percentage occurs in the period 1891-95. In two 
periods, 1871-75 and 1881-85, it was not offered in the fourth year 

' Offered in the first year in 70 per cent of the schools. 

* Offered in the 6rst year in 50 per cent of the schools; in the second year in 30 per cent. 



58 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

and in the remaining periods by not more than one or two schools. 
This distribution of the subject holds throughout the forty years. 

Zoology, as has been pointed out, is not so easily classified in 
respect to frequency of occurrence as other sciences. It follows 
botany more closely than it does any other subject in its field, but 
not closely enough to indicate any general practice of correlating 
these subjects until after 1890. On the whole, distribution between 
the first and second years is fairly equal, followed by the third year 
in point of frequency. The fourth year also has considerable 
representation as compared with botany. For example, in the 
period 1891-95, while botany is represented in this year by about 
5 per cent of the schools, zoology is represented by about 20 per 
cent. 

Physics is found in all years but most frequently in the third. 
It very rarely appears in the first year and is found in the second 
year to some extent in the case of three-year courses. In the case of 
four-year courses not offering chemistry, physics is usually offered 
in the fourth year. If both are offered, the latter usually preceded 
the former although there were exceptions amounting to about 20 
per cent of the schools in 1860-65. Thereafter the percentage fell 
off rapidly until 1885, after which it increased somewhat amounting 
to approximately 15 per cent in 1896-1900. 

Chemistry is rather distinctly a last-year subject, the exception 
being chiefly in the cases when it preceded physics referred to above. 
It seems never to have been offered in the first year and very rarely 
in the second, even in the case of three-year courses. 

Geology was generally offered in the last year, the third year 
standing next in point of frequency. The percentage of frequency 
for the second year ranges from to approximately 20 per cent and 
there is apparently no permanent tendency in regard to the second 
year. Only two cases were found in which the subject was offered 
in the first year. 

Astronomy follows geology somewhat closely, the percentage of 
schools offering it in the last year being large. Like geology, the 
third is next in point of frequency in less ratio, while the cases in 
which it is offered in either the first or second years are almost negli- 
gible. 

The place in a course assigned to a science subject, with the 
exception of physics and chemistry, seems to have been determined 
largely by administrative convenience. As has been pointed out. 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 59 

when physics and chemistry were both offered the former usually 
preceded, and it is not likely that the sequence was merely a matter 
of administrative convenience. Some correlation was no doubt 
attempted and secured. The two subjects most frequently making 
up a year's work are physiology and physical geography.' There 
seems to be no reason for this except that of administrative conve- 
nience. One would expect that botany and zoology would be found 
in the same year since each was usually offered for one-third or 
one-half year; but such is not the rule. There seems to have been 
no general attempt at correlation except in the few schools offering 
biology. Neither geology nor astronomy follow any rule in their 
relations to other sciences in the course. 

The Social Studies. — European history, taught under various 
titles, is found in all years of the course although rarely in 
the last year. The second year is highest in point of frequency. 
This is followed by the third year until after 1895 when the first 
year takes second place. 

Aside from the fact that ancient, medieval, and modern history 
were taught in the logical order, there is no apparent attempt at 
correlation. These subjects usually constituted a one-year course 
based upon some textbook such as Swinton's Outlines, Barnes's 
General History, or Meyer's General History. English history seems 
to have been placed in the course with no reference to United 
States history or other European history. 

United States history was almost exclusively a first-year subject 
until after 1885, and the emphasis upon that year continued to the 
close. After 1890 a considerable number of schools offered the 
subject in the last year, and when offered in that year, it was usually 
designated as a review subject. In 1896-1900 more schools offered 
it in the last year than in any other. 

As has been said, there was no apparent correlation between this 
subject and other history subjects. On the whole, the same can be 
said of it and civics. This is made clear in at least two ways. In 
the first place, civics under various titles, was offered in more 
schools in every period than was United States history, the ratio 
by periods being as follows: 8:7, 4:1, 5:2, 3:1, 2:1, 2:1, and 2:1. A 
study of the courses also reveals that the relative positions in the 
courses occupied by the two subjects make it improbable that any 
general attempt at correlation was made at least until after 1890. 

' Cf. pp. n. 25, 26. 28, 30, 35. 



60 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

For example, civics is found but once in the first year until after 
1876, while during the same period. United States history was 
rarely offered in any other than the first year. 

Little more need be said concerning civics. Except for the first 
three periods referred to and the period 1891-95, when it was 
offered the first year in approximately 40 per cent of the schools, 
it was fairly well distributed over the entire course. As has been 
said, it is rather clear that some general attempt at correlation with 
United States history was made after 1890. 

Political economy was offered in comparatively few schools, the 
ratio of the subject to civics being as follows for the several periods: 
3:4, 1:4, 1:6, 1:5, 3:8, 2:7, and 2:5. It is never found in the first 
year and rarely in the second. For the whole period covered by the 
study, the ratio of the fourth year to the third is 3:7. In the earlier 
years it is clear that no attempt was made to correlate the subject 
with civics, but after 1890 there seems to have been some correla- 
tion attempted. 

Foreign Language. — Since the rule in Latin was to offer three 
years in a three-year course and four years in a four-year course, 
the schools offering beginning Latin in the first year are in an over- 
whelming majority. If but two years were offered in either a three- 
or four^year course, then the subject was begun in the second and 
third years respectively. Caesar almost invariably followed the 
first year. The usual order after Caesar was Cicero and then 
Virgil, although the latter occasionally preceded the former. What 
has been said of beginning Latin is also true in general of other 
foreign languages. If, for example, but two years of German or 
French were offered in a four-year course it was begun in the third 
year. The number of schools after 1890 having beginning German 
in the third year is relatively large, being approximately 50 per cent. 

Commercial Subjects. — Bookkeeping was a first- and second- 
year subject, with the former leading. It was rarely offered after 
the second year until after 1890 when some increase is noticed. 

Miscellaneous Subjects. — Mental philosophy, moral philosophy, 
and logic are almost invariably found in the last years of the course. 
The first named usually preceded the second while logic seems to 
have had no relation to the other two. 

Pedagogy and psychology were also last-year subjects. No 
order of procedure is discernible, sometimes one being offered first 
and sometimes the other. 



NUMBER OF COURSES OFFERED 61 

4. UNITS OF TIME IN ORGANIZATION 

The plan of three terms to the year prevailed generally to the 
close of the century.' A few schools from the very beginning used 
the semester plan^ and the comparative number had increased 
somewhat by 1900. A still less number offered no subject for less 
than one year, and in such cases some subjects had less than five 
recitation periods per week.^ In one school the year was divided 
into quarters resulting in a majority of half-year subjects, and in a 
few cases in which but a single quarter was devoted to a subject. 

The semester plan, as has been said, grew somewhat in favor 
toward the close of the century, and the increasing practice of 
devoting at least a half-year to a subject pointed very definitely 
to a giving-way of the three-term plan. For example, a school 
would preserve the old plan but would offer one subject during 
the fall term and the first half of the winter term, this being 
followed by another subject during the last half of the winter term 
and the spring term. 

Tables XX-XXVIII, showing the maximum and minimum time 
devoted to subjects, indicate clearly the prevalence of the three- 
term plan. The number of schools, however, adhering to the 
three-term plan always exceeded the number indicated by the 
tables because of the practice referred to in the preceding para- 
graph. 

The following tables, III-X, constitute an analysis of Tables 
A-H from the standpoint of number of schools offering the various 
subjects. In Tables II, III, IV, and V, twenty schools are repre- 
sented, twenty-five in Table VI, thirty in Table VII, and forty in 
Tables VI II and IX. 

* Cf. chap. iii. 
'Cf. pp. 21,24. 

• Cf. pp. 36, 38, 39. 



CHAPTER V 

SUBJECTS INCLUDED IN CURRICULA 

The following tables are summaries from Tables A-H, in Appen- 
dix, inclusive and show the range of subjects and also the number of 
schools offering the various subjects.' 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 17 
Algebra, 18 
Geometry, 19 
Trigonometry, 
Analytics, 2 
Surveying, 8 
Engineering, 3 



12 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 8 
Medieval History, 3 
Modern History, 6 
United States History, 3 
English History, 3 
General History, 3 
Universal History, 2 
Science of Government, 

ment, 3 
United States Constitu- 
tion, 8 
Political Economy, 4 
History, 2 
History of Civilization, 1 



TABLE II 

TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1860-65 
English 
Grammar, 12 
English Analysis, 11 
Word Analysis, 4 
Reading, 6 
Composition, 11* 
Rhetoric, 18 
English Literature, 6 
Literature, 1 
Classics, 1 

Elements of Criticism, 4 
Elocution, 1 
English, 1 

Foreign Language 

Latin, 16 
Greek, 7 
German, 7 
French, 4 

Commercial Subjects 

Bookkeeping, 3 
Business Forms, 1 



Science 
Physiology, 17 
Physical Geography, 

17 
Natural Philosophy, 

20 
Physics, 1 
Chemistry, 17 
Geology, 14 
Astronomy, 14 
Botany, 14 
Natural History, 5 
Zoology, 4 
Geography, 2 

Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 12 
Moral Philosophy, 11 
Logic, 5 
Psychology, 2 
Evidences of Chris- 
tianity, 2 
Ancient Geography, 2 
Butler's Analogy, 1 
Domestic Science, 2 
Natural Theology, 2 



* The number of subjects, particularly in English and the social studies, is increased somewhat by 
lack of uniformity in terminology. 

' Composition was actually taught in more schools than is indicated in this and the following tables 
It is not included in the count because it did not appear as a regular subject, but was listed in the foot- 
notes as one of the general exercises. More detailed explanation will be found in Part U. 



62 



SUBJECTS INCLUDED IN CURRICULA 



63 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 12 
Algebra, 20 
Geometrj', 20 
Trigonometry, 14 
Calculus, 1 
Analytics, 1 
Surveying, 4 
Engineering, 1 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 8 
Modern History, 2 
General History, 9 
United States History, 4 
English History, 2 
History, 4 
Science of Government, 

2 
Civil Government, 8 
United States Constitu- 
tion, 4 
Political Economy, 6 
Political Science, 1 
Chronology, 1 



TABLE III 

TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1866-70 
English 
Grammar, 9 
Analysis, 8 
Reading, 7 
Composition, 8 
Rhetoric, 15 
Etymology, 1 
English Language, 1 
English Literature, 13 
American Literature, 2 
History of English Liter- 
ature, 1 
Elocution, 2 



Foreign Language 
Latin, 17 
Greek, 13 
German, 11 
French, 6 



Commercial Subjects 



Bookkeeping, 12 



Science 
Physiology, 15 
Physical Geography, 

14 
Natural Philosophy, 

20 
Physics, 1 
Mechanics, 1 
Chemistry, 16 
Astronomy, 18 
Geology, 12 
Botany, 15 
Zoology, 4 
Natural History, 6 
Mineralogy, 1 
Meteorology, 1 
Geography, 5 

Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 15 
Moral Philosophy, 9 
Logic, 2 
Drawing, 2 

Classical Antiquities, 2 
Evidence of Christi- 
anity, 1 
Ancient Geography, 2 
Pedagogy, 2 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 12 
Algebra, 20 
Geometry, 20 
Trigonometry, 15 
Analytics, 1 
Surveying, 4 
Navigation, 1 
Calculus, 1 
Spherical Geometry, 1 



TABLE IV 

TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1871-75 
English 

Grammar, 8 

Analysis, 7 

Reading, 1 

Composition, 12 

Rhetoric, 17 

English Literature, 18 

American Literature, 2 

History of English Liter- 
ature, 1 



Science 
Physiology, 17 
Physical Geography, 

15 
Natural Philosophy, 

14 
Physics, 4 
Mechanics, 3 
Electricity, 1 
Light and Heat, 1 



64 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



English Language, 1 
Etymology, 2 
Elocution, 2 



Natural Science, 1 
Chemistry, 18 
Botany, 17 
Zoology, 8 
Natural History, 4 
Geology, 17 
Astronomy, 16 
Geography, 2 
Mineralogy, 1 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 4 
Medieval History, 1 
Modern Histoy, 3 
United States History, 5 
General History, 11 
Universal History, 1 
Outlines of History, 1 
History, 4 
Science of Government, 

3 
Civil Government, 7 
United States Constitu- 
tion, 5 
State Constitution, 1 
Political Science, 1 
Political Economy, 5 



Foreign Language 

Latin, 18 
Greek, 10 
German, 13 
French, 12 



Commercial Subjects 
Bookkeeping, 10 
Commercial Law, 1 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 10 
Moral Philosophy, 5 
Logic, 2 

Classical Antiquities, 1 
Ancient Geography, 2 
Biblical Antiquities, 1 
Manual of Fine Arts, 1 
Pedagogy, 1 
Art, 1 
Drawing, 2 

Evidences of Christi- 
anity, 2 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 14 
Algebra, 20 
Geometry, 20 
Trigonometry, 11 
Analytics, 1 
Mensuration, 1 
Surveying, 2 
Plane Geometry, 3 
Solid Geometry, 1 



TABLE V 

TWENTY SCHOOLS, 1876-80 
English 
Grammar, 6 
Analysis, 5 
Word Analysis, 1 
Reading, 2 
English Language, 2 
Composition, 12 
Rhetoric, 14 
English Literature, 14 
History of English Lit- 
erature, 2 
Elements of Criticism, 1 
Elocution, 1 



Science 
Physiology, 19 
Physical Geography 

13 
Natural Philosophy, 

16 
Physics, 5 
Mechanics, 1 
Chemistry, 13 
Geology, 10 
Astronomy, 13 
Botany, 17 
Zoology, 9 
Natural History, 6 
Natural Science, 1 
Meteorology, 1 
Geography, 2 



SUBJECTS INCLUDED IN CURRICULA 



65 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 6 
Medieval History, 1 
Modern Histor>', 3 
United States History, 5 
English History, 5 
General History, 10 
Universal History, 1 
Outlines of History, 2 
History 3 

History of Michigan, 1 
Science of Government, 3 
Civil Government, 8 
United States Constitu- 
tion, 4 
Political Economy, 3 
Parliamentary Rules, 1 



Foreign Language 
Latin, 15 
Greek, 8 
German, 12 
French, 3 



Commercial Subjects 
Bookkeeping, 10 
Business Forms, 1 
Commercial Arithmetic, 
1 



TABLE VI 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 22 
Algebra, 25 
Geometry, 25 
Trigonometry, 10 
Surveying, 3 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 5 
Medieval History, 1 
Modern History, 1 
United States History, 8 
English History, 8 
General History, 18 
History, 5 
History of Civilization, 

1 
Science of Government, 



TWENTY-FIVE SCHOOLS, 1881- 
Englisb 

Grammar, 13 

Analysis, 6 

Word Analysis, 3 

Reading, 6 

Composition, 9 

Rhetoric, 21 

Etymology, 1 

Elocution, 4 

English Literature, 18 

American Literature, 3 

History of English Liter- 
ature, 1 

History of American Lit- 
erature, 1 

Literature, 4 

Classics, 8 

English, 1 

Foreign Language 
Latin, 23 
Greek, 5 
German, 12 
French, 5 



Commercial Subjects 
Bookkeeping, 17 
Business Forms, 1 
2 Commercial Arithmetic, 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 8 
Moral Philosophy, 4 
Logic, 1 

Classical Antiquities, 1 
Manual Art, 1 
Drawing, 1 



Science 
Physiology, 23 
Physical Geography, 

17 
Natural Philosophy, 

18 
Physics, 7 
Chemistry, 20 
Geology, 14 
Botany, 18 
Zoology, 10 
Natural History, 3 
Astronomy, 12 
Geography, 2 
Biology, 1 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 6 
Moral Philosophy, 3 
Logic, 1 
Drawing, 1 
Pedagogy, 1 



66 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Civil Government, 15 
United States Constitu- 
tion, 4 
Political Economy, 8 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 25 
Algebra, 30 
Geometry, 26 
Plane Geometry, 6 
Solid Geometry, 5 
Trigonometry, 11 
Surveying, 2 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 10 
Medieval History, 5 
Modern History, 5 
United States History, 16 
English History, 13 
French History, 1 
General History, 17 
Science of Government, 1 
Civil Government, 23 
United States Constitu- 
tion, 6 
State Constitution, 2 
Civics, 1 

Political Economy, 11 
Historical Reading, 1 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 28 
Algebra, 40 
Geometry, 33 



TABLE VII 

THIRTY SCHOOLS, 1886-90 
English 
Grammar, 20 
Analysis, 4 
Word Analysis, 5 
Reading, 9 
Composition, 13 
Rhetoric, 25 
English Literature, 21 
American Literature, 6 
Literature, 6 
Classics, 1 
Orthography, 1 
Etymology, 1 
Elocution, 2 
First Year English, 8 
Second Year English, 8 
Third Year English, 7 
Fourth Year English, 1 

Foreign Language 
Latin, 25 
Greek, 4 
German, 14 
French, 3 



Commercial Subjects 

Bookkeeping, 24 
Business Forms, 1 
Commercial Arithmetic, 

1 
Business Arithmetic, 1 
Commercial Law, 3 
Phonography, 1 

TABLE VIII 

FORTY SCHOOLS, 1891-95 
English 
Grammar, 14 
Analysis, 1 
Word Analysis, 4 



Science 
Physiology, 26 
Physical Geography, 

27 
Natural Philosophy, 

11 
Physics, 19 
Chemistry, 18 
Geology, 19 
Botany, 29 
Zoology, 19 
Astronomy, 17 
Geography, 6 
Entomology, 1 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 6 
Moral Philosophy, 3 
Drawing, 5 
Theory and Art of 

Teaching, 5 
Psychology and Peda- 
gogy, 2 
Manual Training, 2 



Science 
Physiology, 32 
Physical Geography, 
29 



SUBJECTS INCLUDED IN CURRICULA 



67 



Plane Geometry, 6 
Solid Geometry, 7 
Trigonometry, 8 
Mensuration, 1 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 13 
Modern History, 1 
United States History, 

IS 
English History, 14 
French History, 2 
General History, 25 
Outlines of History, 1 
Political History, 5 
Historical Readings, 1 
Current Events, 1 
Social Science, 1 
United States and State 

Constitutions, 1 
United States Civil Gov- 
ernment, 1 
State Civil Government, 

1 
Civil Government, 25 
Civics, 7 
Political Economy, 1 1 



Reading, 1 
Composition, 21 
Rhetoric, 27 
English Literature, 21 
American Literature, 9 
Literature, 13 
Classics, 10 
Etymology, 2 
Orthography, 1 
Elocution, 3 
First Year English, 13 
Second Year English, 9 
Third Year English, 6 
Fourth Year English, 3 

Foreign Language 
Latin, 38 
Greek, 7 
German, 21 
French, 5 
Spanish, 1 



Commercial Subjects 
Bookkeeping, 19 
Business Forms, 2 
Commercial Arithmetic, 

3 
Business Arithmetic, 3 
Commercial Law, 5 
Commercial Geography, 

1 
Business Practice, 1 
Stenography, 3 
Typewriting, 1 



Natural Philosophy, 5 
Physics, 35 
Chemistry, 28 
Geology, 19 
Botany, 33 
ZoiJlogy, IS 
Biology, 2 
Astronomy, 20 
Geography, 2 
Meteorology, 1 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 3 
Psychology, 7 
Pedagogy, 8 
Ethics, 1 
Drawing, 3 
Manual Training, 2 



Mathematics 
Arithmetic, 28 
Algebra, 40 
Geometry, 29 
Plane Geometry, 12 
Solid Geometry, 9 
Trigonometry, 9 



TABLE IX 

FORTY SCHOOLS, 1896-1900 
English 

Grammar, 14 
Analysis, 1 
Word Analysis, S 
Reading, 4 
Composition, 17 
Rhetoric, 25 
English Literature, 15 
American Literature 



Science 
Physiology, 28 
Physical Geography, 

30 
Natural Philosophy, 1 
Physics, 37 
Chemistry, 26 
Geology, 9 
Botany, 33 



68 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Social Studies 
Ancient History, 15 
Medieval History, 2 
Modern History, 3 
United States History, 

18 
English History, 20 
French History, 4 
General History, 26 
Economic History, 1 
History, 2 
United States Constitu 

tion, 2 
State Constitution, 1 
Civil Government, 24 
Civics, 10 

American Politics, 1 
Social Science, 1 
Political Economy, 16 



Literature, 14 
Authors, 1 
Classics, 5 

History of English Lit- 
erature, 2 
Orthography, 2 
First Year English, 17 
Second Year English, 14 
Third Year English, 11 
Fourth Year English, 5 

Foreign Language 
Latin, 39 
GreeU, 10 
German, 23 
French, 4 



Commercial Subjects 
Bookkeeping, 29 
Business Forms, 4 
Commercial Arithmetic, 



Zoology, 18 
Biology, 4 
Astronomy, 11 
Natural History, 1 
Geography, 2 
Physiography, 1 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
Mental Philosophy, 1 
Moral Philosophy, 1 
Psychology, 9 
Ethics, 2 
Pedagogy, 6 
Drav/ing, 6 
Domestic Science, 1 
Manual Training, 1 



CoiTimercial Law, 9 

Commercial Geography, 
3 

Business Correspon- 
dence, 1 

Banking, 1 

Stenography, 5 

Phonography, 1 

Typewriting, 5 

The wide range of subjects offered in the early courses of study, 
particularly in certain fields, is shown in Tables II-IX. This does 
not mean, of course, that a majority of schools offered all the sub- 
jects listed. On the contrary, only a few schools offered the wide 
range. Tables A-H, Appendix, show the marked difference in this 
particular among the schools. These tables also indicate the 
constants and variables in the curricula. 

In some fields, the number of subjects is not as large as the tables 
indicate because of lack of uniformity in terminology. This is 
particularly true of English and the social studies. For example, 
grammar, analysis, and sentential analysis do not necessarily indi- 
cate different types of subject-matter. The same is true of reading, 
classics, and literature. Civics, civil government, and science of 



SUBJECTS INCLUDED IN CURRICULA 69 

government are examples in the field of social studies. Another 
example in this same field is the various titles used in European 
history. Mensuration and conic sections in mathematics, and 
mechanics, meteorology, mineralogy, magnetism, heat and light, 
and electricity in science are further examples. 

The wide range of subjects is not, however, wholly accounted for 
by a multiplication of terms. Some of the schools actually offered 
a comparatively wide range of subjects, including some which are 
not found at all in present secondary' curricula. In mathematics, in 
addition to the subjects now included in high-school curricula, 
trigonometry was much more common than at the present time, 
and analytics, calculus, sur\-eying, and navigation, which were 
oiTered in a few of the earlier schools, practically disappeared 
after 1880. 

In the case of English the opposite is true. Some schools offered 
very little in this field and the practice was common in the early 
years even in the large schools to omit English in the classical 
courses. On the whole, the range of work provided was compara- 
tively narrow until about 1885, except in a few of the larger schools. 

Science is one of the fields in which a wide range of subjects was 
offered. The general practice was to offer short courses in several 
science subjects rather than longer courses in two or three subjects. 
This was particularly true in the earlier periods, while toward the 
close the practice was more general to offer fewer subjects with no 
diminution of time devoted to the field. 

The social studies, like English, received less attention in a 
majority of schools than at the present time. Here, again, as in 
English, the range of work increased somewhat in the larger schools 
and the number of schools offering the wider range of subjects 
increased as time went on.' 

The range of work in the foreign languages differed very little 
throughout the forty years. Except for the elimination of advanced 
subject-matter offered in Latin by a few of the earlier schools, the 
work in the foreign languages remained practically unchanged. 

In the commercial field, except for bookkeeping, little was 
offered until near the close of the century. Judged from the stand- 
point of the narrow range of work and the comparatively large 

1 Courses of study after 1900 show that the increase of amount of work in English continues until 
four years of work becomes the standard. The same tendency is also shown in the social studies although 
less marked. See Part III. 



70 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

percentage of schools offering no commercial work, it is very clear 
that on the whole high schools provided very little in the way of 
commercial education. 

The miscellaneous subjects were relatively numerous in the 
earlier years. Some of these received considerable attention while 
others were offered in but few curricula as shown by the tables. 
Mental and moral philosophy, being offered in more than half the 
schools in 1860, headed the list in point of frequency, and logic 
was next to these in importance. Other subjects such as evidences 
of Christianity, ancient geography, biblical antiquities, classical 
antiquities, Butler's Analogy, natural theology, ethics, and art 
were each offered in a few schools prior to 1880. Drawing was 
offered in a few schools in all the periods. Psychology was offered 
in 1860 and then dropped out until 1890. Pedagogy was included 
in the list in all except two periods. Domestic science was found 
in two schools in 1860 and in one in 1900. Manual training was 
just beginning to receive attention at the close and, like domestic 
science, its development belongs to the present century. 

In the following chapter, Table X shows a further analysis of 
Tables II-IX, dealing especially with constants and variables. 



CHAPTER VI 

CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES 

Table X indicates the percentage of schools offering the different 
subjects in the various fields for the several periods. This table does 
not, of course, represent with absolute accuracy the comparative 
percentages of schools offering the subjects because the same 
schools do not enter into all the computations. It does, however, 
make clear that some subjects were relatively constant while others 
were variable in different degrees, and it also shows tendencies of 
subjects to increase or decrease in importance. 

TABLE X 

Percentage of Schools Offering the Different Subjects for 

THE Several Periods 



Subjects 


1860- 
65 


1866- 
70 


1871- 
75 


1876- 
80 


1881- 
85 


1886- 
90 


1891- 
95 


1896- 
1900 


Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 


85 
90 


60 

100 


60 
100 


70 
100 


88 

100 


83 

100 
20 
17 
80 
36 


70 

100 
15 

17M 
82^2 
20 


65 
100 

25 


Solid Geometry 












22}4 


Geometry 

Trigonometry 


95 
60 
10 
40 
10 


100 

70 
5 

20 
5 


100 

75 

5 

20 


100 

75 

5 

10 


100 

40 


nv2 
223^ 


Surveying 

Engineering 


12 


6 












5 






2H 




Calculus 




5 


5 
5 
5 

40 
35 








Navigation 






























English- 


60 
55 
20 
30 
55 
90 
30 

5 


45 
40 


30 

25 

5 

10 
60 
85 
70 
15 


52 
24 
12 
24 
36 
84 
72 
12 
16 


66 
15 
17 
30 
42 
83 
70 
20 
20 


35 

2y2 

10 

2^2 

52^2 
67J^ 
52 J/2 
22M 
3214 


35 


Analysis . 


2}i 


Word Analysis 


12 


35 
40 
75 
65 
10 


5 
60 
85 
90 
10 


10 


Composition 


42 
6214 


English Literature. . . 
American Literature. 
Literature 


371^ 

IS 

35 



71 



72 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE X.— Continued 

Percentage of Schools Offering the Different Subjects for the Several 

Periods 



Subjects 


1860- 
65 


1866- 
70 


1871- 
75 


1876- 
80 


1881- 
85 


1886- 
90 


1891- 
95 


1896- 
1900 


Classics 


5 
20 








32 


3 


25 


15 








5 




OrthocrraDhv 








3 




5 


















5 


10 


10 


5 


16 

4 


6 






pnp'Iish . . 






First Year English. . . 










26 

26 

23 

3 


15 


42 J^ 


Second Year English. 












35 














27}^ 














IS 


History of English 


5 


5 
5 

75 
65 

100 

5 

80 

60 

90 

[75 
20 


5 
5 

85 
75 
70 
20 
90 
85 
80 
85 
40 


10 
10 

95 
65 
80 
25 
65 
50 
65 
85 
45 


4 












Science — 

Phvsiolos'v 


"85 

100 

5 
'/85 
'' 70 


92 
68 
72 
28 
60 
56 
48 
72 
40 

4 
12 

8 


87 
90 
36 
64 

72^2 
64 
57 
97 
64 


80 

72^ 

123/2 

87^2 

65 

47M 

50 

82 H 


70 


Physical Geography. . 
Natural Philosophy . . 
Physics . . 


75 
95 


Chemistry 






22}^ 




70 

;;70 

? 20 


271/$ 




82 1/^ 


Zoolocv 


42 J^ 


Biology 




10 


Natural History*. . . . 


25 
10 


30 

25 
5. 


20 
10 


30 
10 


20 


5 

5 


2^ 
5 






Meteorology 




5 
5 


15 

5 
5 


5 

5 








]\Iechanics 








































Physiography 














214 


Light and Heat 






5 

20 

15 
25 












Social Studies — • 

Ancient History 

Medieval History. . . . 

Modern History 

United States History- 
English History 


40 
15 
30 
15 
15 


40 
5 

10 
20 
10 


30 
5 
15 
25 
25 


20 

4 

4 

32 

32 


33 

17 
17 
53 
43 
3 


32^2 

"m 

37 M 
35 
5 


37H 

S 

7^ 
45 
50 
10 

















•The disappearance of natural history should not be regarded as a loss to its field since the subject- 
niatter was taken care of by botany, zoology, and biology. 



CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES 



73 



TABLE 'K— Continued 
Percentage of Schools Offering the Different Subjects for the Several 

Periods 



Subjects 


1860- 
65 


1866- 
70 


1871- 

75 


1876- 
80 


1881- 
85 


1886- 
90 


1891- 
95 


1896- 
1900 


General History 

Universal History. . . 
Outlines of History. . 


15 
10 


45 


55 
5 
5 

15 
35 


50 

5 
10 

15 
40 


72 


58 


62 H 


65 






2H 




Science of Govern- 
ment 


15 


10 
40 


8 
60 


3 
85 






62 H 
2^ 

i^V2 


60 


United States Civil 
Government 






State Civil Govern- 
















Civics 












3 

18 
6 


25 


United States Consti- 
tution 


40 


20 


25 

5 


20 


16 


5 


State Constitution . . . 




United States and 
State Constitution . 










27K 
2H 
2^ 
2M 
2M 




Political Economy . . . 
Historical Reading. . . 


20 


30 


25 


15 


32 


36 
3 


40 


Social Science 














Current Events 
















Political History 
















Political Science 




5 
20 


5 










History 


10 


10 

5 
5 


20 






5 


Parliamentary Rules. 








State History 
















History of Civilization 


5 






4 








Chronology' 














Foreign Languages — 
Latin: 


80 


85 
5 

15 
20 
40 
65 
10 
35 
10 


90 

20 
5 
20 
45 
50 
20 
20 
20 


75 


92 


83 
3 
17 
30 
33 
15 


95 
2M 
IS 
25 
63 
17H 


971^ 


Two years 

Three years 

Four years 

Greek : 

One year 


20 
30 
5 
35 
10 
20 
10 


5 
20 
45 
40 

5 
20 
15 


12 
40 
40 
20 


W2 
15 

75 
25 


Two years 

Three years 

Four years 


20 


6 
6 


W2 

5 


20 
2H 
2}^ 


German: 

One year 


35 


55 
5 

15 
15 
15 


65 
25 
15 
20 
15 


60 
5 

10 
10 

35 


48 
4 

12 
8 

24 


46 
3 
13 
10 
20 


52 
10 
27 

5 
10 


57}^ 

7M 

27H 


Two years 

Three years 


20 


Four years 


5 


22^ 



74 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE '^—Continued 
Percentage of Schools Offering the Different Subjects for the Several 

Periods 



Subjects 


1860- 
65 


1866- 
70 


1871- 

75 


1876- 
80 


1 sal- 
es 


1886- 
90 


1891- 
95 


1896- 
1900 


French : 


20 

10 

10 

5 


30 

15 
10 

5 


60 
30 
15 
15 
5 


15 


20 


10 


15 
10 

2^2 


10 


Two years 

Three years 

Four years 


5 
5 
5 


16 

4 


10 


10 


2J4 
2H 




Spanish: 


5 
















Two years ... 


















Three years 


















Four years 

Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Business Forms 


5 

40 

5 












2^2 

48 
5 
121.^ 

15 

2V2 

2^ 
7^ 
2y2 




60 


50 


50 
5 


68 

4 


80 

3 

10 

6 

3 


6TH 
10 


Commercial Law .... 




5 


223^ 


Commercial Arithme- 
tic 






5 


8 


20 


Phonography 








2y2 


Commercial Geogra- 
nhv 












yyi 


Business Practice. . . . 














2y2 


Stenography 














n}4 


Typewriting 














12J^ 


Banking 














2}4 


Miscellaneous — 

Mental Philosophy... 
Moral Philosophy. . . 
Logic 


60 

55 
25 
10 


75 
45 
10 


50 

25 
10 


40 

20 

5 


24 

12 

4 


20 
10 


TA 


2yi 

2J^ 


Psvcholoev 




15 

2^2 

20 


2iy2 


Ethics 












5 


Pedagogy 




10 


5 

5 

5 

10 




4 


23 


15 


Art 






Manual of Art 






5 
5 














10 


4 


16 
6 


7 1/2 

5 


15 


Manual Training. . . . 




5 


Classical Antiquities 




10 

5 
10 


5 

10 
10 

5 


5 






Evolution of Chris- 
tianity 

Ancient Geography . . 
Biblical Antiquities. . 


10 
10 
































10 
10 

5 












2J^ 


National Theology. . . 
Butler's Analogy. . . . 













































CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES 75 

In the first place, from the standpoint of the fields, Table X 
(and also Tables A-H in more detail) shows that all the schools 
offered something in mathematics, English, and science in all the 
periods. The social studies belong to this group after 1870. Prior 
to that date 10 per cent of the schools offered nothing in this field. 

Foreign language was offered in the following percentages of 
schools for the several periods: 80, 85, 95, 75, 92, 87, 95, and 97}^, 
respectively. Commercial subjects for all the periods show the 
following percentages: 40, 60, 55, 60, 68, 70, 45, and 65. The 
miscellaneous subjects are represented by the following in the 
several periods: 75, 70, 55, 40, 47, 45, and 40. 

It will be seen that mathematics, English, and science were the 
constants, the social studies being in this group after 1870. Foreign 
language, represented in 80 per cent of the schools in 1860, was 
offered in 97J^ per cent in 1900. The commercial subjects increase 
from 40 per cent in 1860 to 65 per cent at the close, while the miscel- 
laneous group decreased from 75 per cent to 40 per cent. These 
subjects fall into two groups. The first includes mental philosophy, 
moral philosophy, logic, and others mentioned on page 74 which 
were taught in the earlier years, while psychology, pedagogy, and 
manual training belong to the second group and were taught in the 
later years. The comparatively high percentages of the first group 
hold rather steadily until after 1875 when, with the exception of 
drawing, they rapidly disappear. The second group, somewhat 
overlapping the period occupied by the first group, is comparatively 
unimportant even at the close. 

Table X furnishes details concerning constants and variables 
from the standpoint of subjects offered. As indicated on page 97 the 
table should not be interpreted as furnishing exact comparative 
data' for the several periods but rather that it shows, first, the rela- 
tive importance of subjects for the several periods in different 
degrees, and secondly, the tendencies with respect to the entire 
period under discussion. 

In mathematics, except for the first period, algebra and geome- 
try were the constants. After 1885 there is some overlapping in 
geometry due to confusion in terminology. Arithmetic is next in 
importance and was ofl^ered in 85 per cent of the schools in 1860 
and in 65 per cent at the close. The varying percentages from 
period to period do not probably indicate that the subject came 

1 The same schools are not used in all the tables. 



76 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

and went in any such arbitrary fashion in the degree indicated by 
the table.' Tables A-H, however, do show that it was a variable in 
certain schools being offered at one time and omitted at another.^ 
On the whole, the subject declined in importance. Trigonometry 
stands next in importance, and declines from 60 per cent at the 
beginning to IV/i per cent at the close. Higher mathematics, as 
reference to the table will show, was represented in a considerable 
number of schools in 1860. The decline thereafter was rapid and 
these subjects had practically disappeared by 1885. 

The facts concerning English subjects are not easily determined 
because of the confusion in terminology. This was caused in several 
ways. For example, literature, on the one hand, was taught under 
various titles such as reading, classics, literature, English literature, 
American literature, and history of English literature. On the 
other hand, the term "literature" meant history of English literature 
and sometimes the whole of certain masterpieces. Further uncer- 
tainty is added by the introduction of the general term English 
after 1885. 

Grammar,' like arithmetic, was a variable and on the whole 
declined in importance. How much the actual decline was, is not 
easily determined since it is certain that the subject was taught in 
some schools under the general title English after 1885. When we 
take into account, however, that for our purpose here English 
analysis may be regarded as grammar, it is evident that the decline 
was considerable. 

In the case of composition the table should be interpreted in the 
light of two facts, viz.: (1) The subject was not so commonly 
taught in the earlier years as a regular subject as was the case in the 
later years, the earlier practice being to list it as a footnote along 
with other subjects such as declamation, music, writing, and the 
like. (2) The evidence is clear that the subject was taught more or 
less in connection with grammar, rhetoric, and literature, and in 
such cases was not always mentioned in the course. Taking into 
account all the conditions under which the subject was taught, it is 
clear that its importance increased both from the standpoint of the 
number of schools offering it and the time devoted to it. It is 

^ The same schools are not used in all the tables. 

» For e.^aniple, Chicago, Illinois, and Cleveland, Ohio, offered the subject in 1860-65 but not in 1866- 
70, while Dubuque. Iowa, offered it during the latter period but not in the former. 

' ^\s an example of a single school, Madison, Wisconsin, offered the subject in 1860, but it is not 
included in the curriculum of 1807. It is again included in the list of subjects in 1876, 188.^, and 1887. 
The subject is not offered in 1892 nor thereafter unless included in the general term "English." 



CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES 77 

usually a first-year subject when listed separately and the decrease 
of 10 per cent from 1895 to 1900 is exactly balanced by the increase 
of the use of the term English in designating first-year work. 

Rhetoric ranked next to literature in importance and there was 
not much change relatively in the number of schools offering the 
subject until 1890. Part of the falling ofl in the last two periods is 
probably only apparent since the general term English no doubt 
included rhetoric. But a study of the table will show that a decrease 
of approximately 20 per cent from 1890 to 1900 cannot all be 
accounted for in this way. There was, no doubt, some decline in 
the subject after the former date. 

The facts concerning literature, like those of the other subjects 
in its field, are not easily determined after 1885 because of the use 
of the general term English. Confusion is still further introduced 
because of the lack in some cases of definite information concerning 
the character of the subject-matter called "reading." Tables A-H 
show rather conclusively that literature was not a constant until 
after 1885. Probably not more than 60 per cent of the schools 
offered the subject in 1860. Under one title or another it increased 
in importance thereafter and after 1885 it was a constant. 

The science field was a constant, some subjects being offered in 
all the schools. No one subject, however, was strictly a constant, 
although physics was practically so. It was offered in all the schools 
included in Tables A-H except for the periods 1871-75, 1876-80, 
and 1896-1900, the percentage being 95 for each of these. ^ The 
next nearest approach in this field to being a constant was made by 
physiology. The average for the several periods was approximately 
85 per cent, the maximum being 95 per cent in 1876-80, and the 
minimum 70 per cent in 1896-1900. Botany ranks next with an 
average of 78 per cent which is closely followed by physical geog- 
raphy and chemistry, each having an average of 75 per cent. 
The next highest average, 60 per cent, is held by astronomy although 
at the close it was offered in less than 25 per cent of the schools. 
An average of approximately 55 per cent is held by both geology 
and zoology.- The former declines rapidly after 1890, being offered 
in approximately but 25 per cent of the schools at the close. Zoology 
holds rather close to the average throughout except for the period 
1876-80 when it reaches its maximum at 75 per cent. 

1 It is probable that subject-matter belonging to the subject was taught in all the schools except for 
the period 1896-1900, but a positive conclusion is not possible because of confusion in terminology. 
' Including natural history. 



78 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

The status of European history is not easily determined from 
Table X, but Tables A-H show that the subject was offered in some 
form in all the schools in four of the periods and in 90 per cent of 
them the other four — first, second, sixth, and seventh. 

French history is practically negligible while English history 
is found in all periods except the third and reached its maximum, 
50 per cent, at the close. 

United States history does not exceed 25 per cent until after 
1880, reaches its maximum, 53 per cent, in 1886-90, and was 
taught in 45 per cent of the schools at the close. Civics, under its 
various titles, was offered by a majority of schools in all periods, 
the minimum being 55 per cent in 1860-65, and is found in approxi- 
mately 90 per cent of the schools after 1885. Political economy 
begins with 20 per cent, drops to 15 per cent in 1876-80, and reaches 
its maximum, 40 per cent, at the close. 

Latin' was offered in a minimum of 75 per cent of the schools, 
1876-80, and in a maximum of 973^ per cent at the close. It will 
be seen by reference to Table X that with the exception of the first 
period a plurality, and during three periods, 1871-75, 1891-96, 
1896-1900, a majority of the schools offered four years. The 
general tendency was an increase in the number of schools offering 
the subject. 

Greek was always relatively unimportant and declined rather 
rapidly after 1875. After 1880 no schools are listed which offer 
but one year and only one school was found offering four years. 
The largest number of schools offered two years. 

German stands next to Latin in percentage of schools offering 
the subject. Approximately 50 per cent of the schools taught 
German, and there is no general movement revealed either as to 
increased or decreased attention given it. The number of schools 
offering but one year was relatively small, while there was consider- 
able fluctuation from period to period in percentages of two-, 
three-, and four-year courses. 

French was rather distinctly a large-school subject and this 
accounts for the high percentage in 1871-75, Table C, Appendix, 
including a proportionately large number of city schools. The 
subject was relatively unimportant, and there is on the whole a 
decrease in schools offering it. 

' Total percentages for all the foreiffn languages do not always tally with footings for the several 
years because detailed data in some cases are lacking. 



CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES 79 

Table X shows with sufficient clearness the facts concerning 
commercial subjects. Bookkeeping was the only subject of any 
particular significance. After 1890 the beginning of the movement 
to give the commercial subjects an important place in high-school 
curricula is plainly indicated. 

Two facts concerning the miscellaneous subjects are revealed by 
the table: (1) the wide range of subjects; (2) the relative unimpor- 
tance of them. As was pointed out on page 75, mental philosophy, 
moral philosophy, and logic constitute the early group, and psy- 
chology, and pedagogy the later group of subjects having any 
importance. Table X tells the story in detail. 



CHAPTER VII 

VARIATIONS IN TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 

The following tables show the variations in time devoted to the 
several fields and subjects. Tables XI-XVIII show the wide 
variations in time devoted to fields. Table XIX shows maxima, 
minima, modes, and averages in time devoted to the fields, and 
Tables XX-XXVII the same for the subjects. 

The tables below indicate the amount of time devoted to each 
field. It is not possible to include all the schools listed in Tables 
A-H because some courses of study are not given in sufficient 
detail. 



TABLE XI— 1860-65 



MATHEMATICS — 14 SCHOOLS 



Number 
of Years 

4 

72 

•'7 

3 

^S 



1 2 

1.. 



Number 
of Schools 
....3 
....1 
...A 

3 

....1 
....1 
....1 



SCIENCE — 14 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Schools of Schools 

*f 1 

4i 2 

3f 2 

H 2 

3 3 

2f 1 

2i 1 

2i 1 

2 1 



ENGLISH — 13 SCHOOLS 



Number 
of Years 

3* 


Number 
of Schools 
1 


3 


2 


24 


1 


2+ 


1 


2 


2 


1= 


1 


li 


1 


11 


1 


1 


2 


I 


1 


SOCIAL STUDIES- 
Number 
of Years 
2 


-13 SCHOOLS 

Number 
of Schools 

2 


il 


1 


a 


2 


1 


5 


4 


1 


i 


2 



80 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



81 



LATIN — 11 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 

3 6 

2i 1 

2 3 



GERMAN- 
Number 
of Years 

4 

2 



-5 SCHOOLS 

Number 
of Schools 
1 

4 



GREEK — 8 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 2 

2 3 

If 2 

1* 1 

1 1 

FRENCH — 4 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 1 

1 1 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 

8 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Y'ears of Schools 

1 1 

f 1 

i 6 



TABLE XII- 

MATHEMATICS — 15 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4i 1 

4 2 

3i 1 

3i 1 

3 4 

2f 1 

2 4 

li 1 



SCIENCE — 15 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

Si 1 

4i 3 

3f 2 

3i 1 

3i 2 

3i 1 

3 3 

If 1 

H 1 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 
12 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

2f 1 

2 1 

If 1 

H 1 

1 2 

f 5 

i 1 

-1866-70 

ENGLISH — IS SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3| 1 

2i 1 

2 1 

If 4 

1* ■■ 1 

If 3 

1 1 

f 2 

f 1 

SOCIAL STUDIES — 15 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

2i 2 

2 2 

If 3 

H 1 

If 3 

li 4 

1 3 

1 



82 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



LATIN — 16 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 6 

3* 1 

3* 1 

3 3 

n 1 

2 3 

1 1 

GERMAN — 10 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 3 

3 3 

2 3 

1 1 



GREEK — 11 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 2 

2 7 

li 1 

1 1 



FRENCH — 6 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 2 

3 2 

2 3 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 
12 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

1 3 

1 2 

i 1 

i 5 

i 1 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 
12 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

2i 1 

li 1 

1 4 

i 1 

1 3 

i 1 

i 1 



TABLE XIII- 

MATHEMATICS — 12 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4| 1 

4 1 

3f 1 

3i 1 

3 2 

2f 1 

2i 1 

2i 3 

2 1 



-1871-75 

ENGLISH — 12 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 1 

2| 1 

2 2 

If 3 

li 1 

li 1 

1 3 



SCIENCE — 12 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

H 1 

4 2 

3f 1 



SOCIAL STUDIES — 12 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

2 2 

If 1 

1* 4 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



83 



LATIN— 
Number 
of Years 
4 


-18 


SCHOOLS 

Number 
of Schools 

9 


3A 




1 


3 




. ..3 


2 




1 


1 




4 


GERMAX- 

Number 
of Years 
4 


-1 


3 SCHOOLS 
Number 
of Schools 

3 


3 




4 


2 .. . . 




3 


1 




5 



COMMERCL\L SUBJECTS* 



1 2 

1 2 

2 9 



GREEK — 12 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 4 

2 4 

1 4 



FRENCH — 13 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 

3 3 

2 3 

1 5 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS* 



TABLE XIV— 1876-80 



MATHEMATICS- 

Number 
of Y'ears 

4i 



-20 SCHOOLS 
Number 
of Schools 
1 



05. 



2i. 
2.. 



ENGLISH- 

Number 
of Years 

3 


-20 SCHOOLS 

Number 
of Schools 
3 


24 




.1 


2\ 




? 


2 




.4 


a 




.1 


14 




7 


li 




.1 


ji 




1 


14. 




.1 


1 




.4 



SCIENCE- 
Number 
of Years 

5 



-20 SCHOOLS 
Number 
of Schools 

2 

1 



SOCIAL STUDIES 20 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3i 1 

3 1 



*The courses are so few m tlus field which makes clear the time devoted to commercial and miscel- 
laneous subjects that no exact data are possible. 



84 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



H 2 

4 3 

3| 1 

H 2 

3A 1 

2^ 1 

3 1 

2f 3 

2i 1 

If 1 

1 1 



2i 1 

2i 1 

2 1 

If 1 

li 2 

li 5 

li 1 

1 3 

f 1 

f 2 



LATIN — 14 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 9 

3 3 

2f 1 

2i 1 



GERMAN — -12 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Scfiools 

4 7 

3 2 

2 2 

1 1 



GREEK — 8 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 3 

2 4 

li 1 



FRENCH — 3 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 

3 1 

2 1 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 
10 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

2 1 

1 2 

1 1 

i 5 

i 1 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 
10 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

li 1 

H 2 

1 1 

1 1 

i 5 



TABLE XV— 1881-85 



MATHEMATICS — 24 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3f 2 

3f 1 

3i 1 

H 3 

3 7 

2i 1 

2i 4 

24- 1 



ENGLISH — 24 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

Sf 1 

5f 1 

4 2 

3^ 2 

H 1 

3 2 

2i 2 

2i 3 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



85 



2 4 

If 2 

1* 1 

1* 1 

1 2 



SCIENCE — 24 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

5 2 

ii 1 

4 5 

3f 2 

3i 1 

3 3 

2f 1 

2| 1 

2f 2 

2i 2 

2 3 

1 1 



SOCIAL STUDIES — 24 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3^ 1 

2f 1 

2^ 2 

2i 3 

2 5 

If 3 

2i 3 

li 2 

1 3 

2 1 

^ 1 



LATIN — 23 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 9 

3| 1 

3^ 1 

H 2 

3 7 

H 1 

2 2 



FRENCH — 3 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 

2 4 



GREEK- 


-15 SCHOOLS 


Number 
of Years 
3 


Number 
of Schools 

5 



GERMAN — 12 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 5 

H 1 

3 2 

2 3 

1 1 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 17 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

H 2 

a 1 

1 2 

i 2 

i 9 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 9 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

1 3 

f 2 

i 1 

i 3 



86 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE XVI- 

MATHEMATICS — 29 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

5 1 

4 4 

3f 1 

3i 1 

3i 2 

3i 1 

H 1 

3 7 

2f 7 

2i 1 

2* 1 

2i 1 

2 1 

SCIENCE — 29 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

6i 1 

5 2 

4| 1 

4i 5 

3f 3 

3i 3 

3i 2 

3 1 

2f 1 

2| 6 

2i 1 

2 3 



LATIN — 25 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 10 

3i 1 

3 8 

2i 1 

2 4 

1 1 

GERMAN — 14 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 6 

3 3 

2 4 

1 1 



-1886-1900 

ENGLISH — 28 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

6i 1 

4 4 

3% 2 

34 1 

H 3 

3 6 

21 1 

2i 1 

2i 2 

2 4 

If 1 

1* 2 



SOCIAL STUDIES — 29 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

H 1 

3| 1 

3f 1 

3| 1 

3i 1 

2f 6 

2i 1 

2i 2 

2 4 

If 4 

li 3 

1* 2 

H 1 

i 1 

GREEK — 4 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

3 2 

2i 1 

2 1 



FRENCH — 3 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 
of Years of Schools 
3 3 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



87 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 
18 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

1* 1 

1* 1 

H 1 

1 3 

f 3 

i 4 

i 5 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 

10 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

If 1 

1 1 

1 2 

i 1 

i 4 

i 1 



* TABLE XVII- 

MATHEMATICS — 40 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4i 1 

4 4 

3% 1 

H 6 

3^ 4 

3i 1 

3 11 

2| 3 

2i 3 

2i 5 

2 1 



-1891-95 

ENGLISH 40 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

6 1 

4i 2 

4 5 

3t^ 1 

3i 2 

3iftr 1 

3 5 

2| 4 

2| 1 

2i 6 

2 3 

If 3 

H 3 

H 1 

1 1 

2 1 



SCIENCE 40 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

Si 2 

5 1 

4f 1 

4f 3 

H 1 

4 6 

3f 1 

3f 1 

H 4 

3| 3 

H 1 

3 4 



SOCIAL STUDIES 40 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

Si 1 

4 2 

3i 4 

3 4 

2i 3 

H 2 

2 8 

1* 1 

If 3 

li 3 

H 2 

1 6 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



2i 3 

2i 4 

2 1 

If 1 

li ^ 



LATIN — 38 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 18 

3| 3 

H 1 

3 9 

2i 1 

2 5 

1 1 





GREEK—: 


3 SCHOOLS 


Number 




Number 


of Years 




of Schools 


3 . . . 




2 


2... 




3 



GERMAN — 22 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 4 

3 3 

2 11 

1 4 



FRENCH — 6 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 

2 1 

li 1 

1 3 



SPANISH — 1 SCHOOL 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 
20 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

5 1 

H 1 

3 1 

2 2 

1 5 

f 2 

i 4 

i 4 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 
15 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

5 1 

H 1 

1 3 

f 3 

i 6 

i 1 



TABLE XVIII, 1896-1900 



MATHEMATICS — 40 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 



4.. 

3f. 
3|. 



ENGLISH- 
Number 
of Years 
5 



1 
■To- 



OS 



-40 SCHOOLS 

Number 
of Schools 

1 

1 

1 

10 

1 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



89 



3f 2 

3^ 8 

3i 1 

3 3 

2f 3 

H 1 

2f 6 

2 8 



3| 2 

3i 4 

3i 1 

3 3 

2| 2 

2i 3 

2i 1 

2 8 

If 1 

li 1 



SCIENCE — 40 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

5 1 

4^ 1 

4 6 

3f 1 

3| 1 

3f 3 

3| 1 

3^ 5 

3i 2 

3 9 

2f 2 

2i 1 

2 4 

H 1 

1 1 

i 1 



SOCIAL STUDIES — 40 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years o( Schools 

4 2 

3f 1 

3^ 1 

H 1 

H 1 

3 7 

2| 3 

2^ 2 

2i 4 

2 7 

If 1 

li 7 

14 1 

1 2 



LATIN — 39 SCHOOLS 
Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

H 1 

4 27 

3f 1 

H 1 

3 6 

2 3 



GREEK — 10 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 1 

3 1 

2 8 



GERMAN — 23 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 

4 9 

2 11 

li 1 

1 2 



FRENCH- 


-2 


SCHOOLS 


Number 




Number 


of Years 




of Schools 


2 




4 



90 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS — 

28 SCHOOLS 

Number Number 

of Years of Schools 



2i. 



2 

1 
If- 



..1 

..2 
..7 
..2 
.10 
..2 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS — 




12 


SCHOOLS 




Number 






Number 


of Years 






of Schools 


71- . 






1 


lA .. 






1 


1 






....1 


%... 






....2 


2 






1 


1 

77. . . 






....6 



TABLE XIX 

Summary Showing Time in Years Devoted to Each Field for 

THE Eight Periods 



Subjects 



Mathematics — 

Maximum . . 

Minimum . . 

Mode 

Average . . . . 
English — 

Maximum . . 

Minimum . . 

Mode 

Average . . . . 
Science — 

Maximum. . 

Minimum . . 

Mode 

Average . . . . 
Social Studies- 
Maximum . . 

Minimum . . 

Mode 

Average . . . . 
Latin — 

Maximum . . 
Minimum . . 

Mode 

Average . . . . 



1860- 
65 



4 
1 

3 
2A 



7 
1-2-3 



5 
2 
3 



4 
2 
3 
H 



1866- 
70 



1 

2-3 

2^ 



H 



If 



4 
1 
4 



1871- 
75 



H 



1876- 
80 



2 

21-3 

"2* 

3 
1 
1-2 
If 

5 
1 
2f-4 
H 

3i 



H 



4 



1881- 

85 



2 
3 



1 

2 
li 

5 
1 
4 

3i 



2 
3 



1886- 
90 



5 
2 

2f-3 



3 
3 

6i 

2 

2^ 

^3 



72 



2* 

4 
1 
4 



1891- 
95 



Si 



5* 



2i 



1896- 
1900 



H 



1 
3 
3i 

4 
1 

2-3 

2* 

2 
4 
3iTr 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



91 



TABLE XIX— Continued 

Summary Showing Time in Years Devoted to Each Field for 

THE Eight Periods 



Subjects 



Greek — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

German — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

French — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

Spanish — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

Foreign Language- 
Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 



Average 

Commercial Subjects* 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 

Miscellaneous Sub- 
jects* — 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Mode 

Average 



1860- 
65 



4 

2 
2 
2| 

3 
1 

1-3 
2 



13 

2 

2-3 



1 
1 1 



1866- 
70 



3 
1 

2 
2 

4 
1 

2-3-4 
2f 

4 
2 
2 



10 
1 

5-7 



1891- 
75 



3 
1 

1-2-3 
2 

4 
1 
1 

H 



m 



13 

2 

4-6 



TJ 



1876- 
80 



2 

21 

4 
1 
4 
H 

4 

2 

2-3-4 

3 



14 

3 

4-8- 

11-14 



•For lists of subjects see Appendix, Tables A-H inclusive. 



1881- 
85 



IS 

2 

4 
6 



^1 



1 1 
7^ 



1886- 
90 



3 
2 
3 
7i 

^2 

4 
1 
4 
3 

3 
3 
3 
3 



14 
2 

2 
6 



1 
1 



1 2 

I 

T 
1 

3 
3^ 



1891- 
95 



3 
2 
2 
2| 

4 
1 
2 
2^ 

4 
1 
1 



4 
4 
4 
4 

16 
3 

2 

5 



If 



1896- 
1900 



4 
2 

2 

''TTT 

4 
1 
2 
23. 

2 
2 
2 
2 



4-6 
6 



1 
If 



li 



92 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE XX, 1860-65 

Analysis of the Courses of Study of Twenty Schools* Showing 

Time in Years Devoted to each Subject! 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Maxi 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Survey and Navigation . 
English — 

Grammar and Analysis. 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Word Analysis 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology§ 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History**. . . . 

United States History. . 

Civicsft 

Political Economics . . . . 
Foreign LanguageXi — . . . . 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Mental Philosophy 

Moral Philosophy 

Logic 



17 
18 
19 
12 



17 
11 

18 



17 
18 
20 
17 
14 
9 
14 
14 

13 
3 

10 
4 



12 
11 

5 



1 

1 



3 
2 

2 



1 
3 
1 

'S 

1 

s 



'S 
1 
¥ 



1 

1-1; 
1 



1 



7 

T¥ 

8 
1 3 

TS 

1 5 

TJ 
1 3 
T8 



4 

3 

7 

4 

¥ 
1 1 
ITT 



1 


7 


3 


T5 


1 


3 


it 


iT 




1 1 


"S 


TS 




1 1 


TT 


16 


2 


1 


¥ 


■J 




1 


A 


2 


1 


4 


A 


¥ 


1 


6 


3 


TS 


2 


4 


ft 


5 


1 


4 


3 


y 


1 


1 


Tf 


¥ 




1 


3 


¥ 


1 


1 


3 


3 


2 


7 


3 


14 


1 


1 


3 


¥ 


1 


1 


S 


3 



•For the names of towns and cities, subjects offered by each school, and time devoted to each see 
Appendix, Table A. 

tSuLjccts infrequently offered are not given in this table. For complete list see Appendix, Table A. 

tNatural philosophy was the term in common use. 

^Includes natural history and biology. 

••Includes ancient, modem, EngUsh and general history, and similar titles. For list see Appendix, 
Table A. 

ttlncludes civil government, United States constitution. State constitution, science of government. 
See ibid. 

USee Table XVIII. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



93 



TABLE XXI— 1866-70 

Analysis of the Courses of Study of Twenty Schools* Showing 

Time in Years Devoted to Each SuBjECTf 



Subjects 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Survey and Navigation. 
English — 

Grammar and Analysis. 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology! 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History**. . . . 

United States History. . 

Civicsf \ 

Political Economy 

Foreign Languageit — 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Mental Philosophy. . . . 

Moral Philosophy 



Number of 
Schools 



12 
20 
20 
14 
4 

14 

8 

15 

14 

15 
13 

20 
16 
15 
10 
12 
18 

18 
4 

12 
6 



12 

15 
9 



Ma.ximum 



5 



2 

2 
'S 

li 

1^ 



2 
TS 



7 
1 



2 
1 



'S 
1 2 
^^ 

2 

S 

2 

1 

■s 

1 



Average 



TS 

1 6 

TT 
1 1 
ITS 



2. 
3 

t's 
_4_ 
1 1 

"S 



2 

'S 

8 
9 

ITS 

1 7 



TS 



To 

4 
1 

7 

TS 



TS 

5 



•For names of towns and cities, subjects offered by each school, and time devoted to each see Appendix, 
Table B. 

fSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For complete list see Appendix, Table \. 

JNatural philosophy was the term in common use. 

§Including natural history and biology. 

••Includes ancient, modem, English, and general history, and similar titles. 

ttlncludes civil government. United States Constitution, State Constitution, science of government. 

ttSee Table XVIIl. 



94 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE XXII— 1871-75 
Analysis of the Courses of Study of Twenty Schools* Showing 
Time in Years Devoted to Each SuBjEcxf 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Ma 



Min 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar and Analysis 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology § 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History** . . . 

United States History. 

Civicstt 

Political Economy .... 
Foreign Languageit — 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Mental Philosophy. ... 

Moral Philosophy 



12 
20 

20 
15 

13 
12 



10 

10 
6 



1 

2 
1 

2 
2 



17 


« 


20 


1^ 


17 


2 
3 


15 


2 
3 


19 


1 


18 


1 


17 


2 
3 


12 


2 
3 


17 


2 
3 


16 


i 


19 


2 


5 


1 


14 


1 


5 


« 



i-1 



5 

li 



5 

TT 



8 

TT 
1 1 
TS 



7 

TT 

1 7 
TT 

7 

TJ 

7 

TT 

5 

TJ 

7 

T8 
4 

T 



1 2 

TT 

2 

T 

3 
¥ 
I 7 

TTT 



7 
TT 



•For names of towns and cities, subjects offered by each school, and time devoted to each see Appen- 
dix, Table C. 

fSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For complete list see Appendix, Table A. 

tNatural philosophy was the term in common use. 

§Includes natural history and biology. 

'•Includes ancient, modem, English, and general history, and similar titles. For list see Appendix, 
Table C. 

ttlncludes Civil Government, United States Constitution, Stale Constitution, science of govern- 
ment. For list see ibid. 

ttSee Table XVIII. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



95 



TABLE XXIII— 1876-80 

Analysis of the Courses of Study of Twenty Schools* Showing 

Time in Years Devoted to Each Subject! 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Maximum 



Minim um 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar and Analysis. . 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology§ 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Science — 

European History** 

United States History. . . 

Civicsft 

Political Economy 

Foreign LanguagetX — 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Mental Philosophy 

Moral Philosophy 



14 
20 
20 
11 

9 
12 
17 
16 

19 
13 
19 

13 
17 
U 
10 
13 

20 
5 

15 
3 



10 

8 

4 



2h 
2 

2 
3 

1 
1 

2 



1 

1 

3 



^3 
1 

1 
1 
2 



1 
2 

1 

1 
1 1 

3 2 



111 

3~2 3 
1 

3 



e 

T 

iiV 

lA 

5 

TT 



2 
3 

7 

TS 
1 1 
TJ 

1 

2 

1 

2 
25 
27 
1 1 

T3^ 

8 
17 

1 

2 
IS 

1 7 

T5 



3 

T 

7 



1 1 



7 
13 



•For names of towns and cities, subjects offered by eacii school, and time devoted to each. See 
Appendix, Table D. 

tSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For complete list, see ibid. 

JNatural philosophy was the term in common use. 

SIncludes natural history and biology. 

**Includes ancient, modem, English, and general history, and similar titles. For list, see .\ppendix, 
Table D. 

ttlncludes civil government. United States Constitution, State Constitution, science of government. 

«See Table XVIII. 



96 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE XXIV— 1881-85 
Analysis of the Courses of Study of Twenty-Five Schools* Show- 
ing Time in Years Devoted to Each Subject! 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Maximum 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar and Analysis. 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

ZooIogy§ 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History**. . . . 

LInited States History. . 

Civicstt 

Political Economy 

Foreign Langnagett — 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Mental Philosophy 

Moral Philosophy 



22 
25 
25 
10 

17 

8 

21 

23 

23 
17 
25 
20 
18 
14 
14 
12 

25 

7 

21 



17 

6 

3 



2 
2 

1^ 
1 

If 
1 

2 



1 
1 
1 

n 

2 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 



M 


i 


1 


li 


1 


* 


1 


4 


3 


V 


2 


8 


3 


¥ 


1 1 


3 


3 2 


r 


1 


3 


3 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


1 1 


1 


3 2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


2 


1 1 


3 


TS 


1 


7 


2 


li 


1 


e 


3 


TS 


1 1 


6 


3 2 


13 


1 1 


5 


3 2 


TU 


1 


1 1 


14 


1 


1 


2 


2 


1 


1 


3 


2 


1 


5 


3 


TJ 


1 


1 


3 


2 


1-1 


1 1 


rg- 



*For names of towns and cities, subjects offered by each school ,and time devoted to each see Appen- 
dix, Table E. ! 

tSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For complete list see ibid. •'^. 

tNatural philosophy was the term in common use. 

§Includes natural history and biology. 

**includej ancient, modern, English, and general history, and similar titles. For list see Appendix, 
Table E. 

ttlncludes Civil government. United States Constitution, State Constitution, science of government. 

JJSce Table XVIII. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



97 



TABLE XXV— 1886-90 

Analysis of the Courses of Study of Thirty Schools* Showing 

Time in Years Devoted to Each SuBjECTf 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar and Analysis 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology § 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History**. . . 

United States History. 

Civicsft 

Political Economy .... 
Foreign LanguageXX — 
Commercial Subjects — • 

Bookkeeping 

Miscellaneous Subjects^ 

Mental Philosophy. . . 

Moral Philosophy 

Pedagogy 



19 
30 
30 
11 

22 
13 
25 
26 

26 
27 
30 
18 
29 
18 
19 
18 

25 
16 
28 
11 



24 

6 
3 

7 



2 
2 

1^ 
2 
3 

1 
1 
1 

3i 

1| 
1 
1 
1 

1| 
1 

2 
3 
2 
3 

2h 
1| 
1 

2 
3 



2 
3 

1 



5 

T5 



TT 

5 
1 5 



1 3 
TTi 

7 

TT 
23 
^7 
1 1 

T¥ 
1 

2 
8 

1 7 

5 

TJ 

5 



1 

2 
4 

TT 



T^ 



13 
T5f 



•For names of towns and cities, subjects offered by eacli school, and time devoted to each see Appen- 
dix, Table F. 

tSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For list see ibid. 

JNatural philosophy a term also used. 

§Includes natural history. 

••Includes ancient, modern, Enghsh, and general history, and similar titles. For list see Appendix, 
Table F. 

ttlncludes civil government. United States Constitution, State Constitution, science of government. 

«Sce Table XVIII. 



98 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



TABLE XXVI— 1891-95 

ANALYSIS OF THE COURSES OF STUDY OF FORTV SCHOOLS* SHOWING TlME IN 

Years Devoted to Each SuBjECTf 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Maximum 



Minimum 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

English — 

Grammar 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . . 

PhysicsJ 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zo6logy§ 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History**. . . . 

United States History. . 

Civicstt 

Political Economy 

Foreign Languageii — 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Commercial Law 

Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Psychology*** 

Pedagogy 



28 
40 
40 



13 
20 
26 

35 

32 
29 
40 
29 
33 
17 
19 
20 

38 
15 
34 
11 



19 

5 



1 

1| 
1 

3i 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1| 
1 

2 
3 

3 
1 
1 
1 



1 
2 

1 
1 1 

3 2 



1 
1 1 

3-J 
1 1 
3-^ 

1 

3 



1 

2 

1 1 

3 3 



2 
3 

1 1 



TT 

7 
7 



1 

2 
1 

2 
s 

6 

7 

TS 

1 



1 1 
TS 
¥ 

S 



4 

T 

5. 

8 



"For names of towns and cities, subjects offered by each school, and time devoted to each see Appen- 
dix, Table G. 

tSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For list see ibid. 

tNatural philosophy a term also used. 

§Includes biology. 

••Includes ancient, modem, English and general history, and similar titles. For list, see Appendix, 
Table G. 

ttlncludes civil government. United States and state constitution. 

ttSee Table XVIII. 

•"•Includes mental philosophy. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 



99 



TABLE XXVII— 1896-1900 

Analysis of the Courses of Study of Forty Schools* Showing Time 

IN Years Devoted to Each SusjECTf 



Subjects 



Number of 
Schools 



Minimum 



Mode 



Average 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

EnglishX — 

Grammar 

Composition 

Rhetoric 

Literature 

Science — 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Botany 

Zoology § 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Social Studies — 

European History**. . 

United States History 

Civicsft 

Political Economy. . . 
Foreign LatiguageiX — 
Commercial Subjects — 

Bookkeeping 

Commercial Law. . . . 
Miscellaneous Subjects — 

Psychology 

Pedagogy 



26 

40 

40 

9 

14 
17 
25 
31 

28 
30 
38 
26 
33 
22 
9 
11 

26 
18 
30 
16 



29 
9 

7 
7 



1 

2 

1 
? 

2 
1 
3 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 
3 
1 

2 



2 
3 

1 

1 



i-1 
li 
1 

1 
3 

1 

2 
1 



TS 

1 3 

4 



7 

IT 



1 
2 

7 

TS 

18 

Tff 
1 s 

1 

s 
TT 

1 
2 

TT 



H 



3 

e 
TT 



1 1 

1 
2 



*For names of towns and cities, subjects offered in each school, and time devoted to each see Appen- 
dix, Table H. 

tSubjects infrequently offered are not given in this table. For list see ibid. 

tSeveral schools offered English without designating the subjects. 

^Includes biology. 

••Includes ancient, modem. English and general history. 

ttlncludes civil government. 

«See Table XVIII. 



100 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



1. LACK OF UNIFORMITY IN TIME 

Tables XI-XVIII show the great lack of uniformity in time 
devoted to the various fields. It will be observed, for example, 
from page 80, that out of fourteen schools offering mathematics 
there were seven different units of time devoted to this field. In 
English there were thirteen schools and ten different units, and 
in science, fourteen schools and nine difTerent units. This lack of 
uniformity is found to prevail throughout the forty years, although 
the tendency to standardize some fields is made evident by decrease 
in number of units and also agreement in a comparatively large 
number of schools. For example, in 1891-95, out of forty schools 
offering mathematics [p. 87] there are only twelve units as com- 
pared with fourteen schools and seven different units in 1860-65. 
The tendency to uniformity is also shown by the fact that three 
units of time include twenty-two of these same schools. The same 
is true of English. In 1860-65, out of thirteen schools there were 
ten different units of time, while in 1896-1900, with forty schools 
there were but fifteen units. As in the case of mathematics, three 
of these units included twenty schools. Comparing pages 80 and 
89 will show the same tendency in both science and the social 
studies although not in the same degree as in mathematics and 
English. 

These tables, however, very clearly show the lack of standardiza- 
tion of high-school curricula from the standpoint of time devoted to 
each field even at the close of the century. 

Table XIX shows the maximum, minimum, mode, and averages 
of time devoted to each field for the several periods and Tables 
XX-XXVII indicate the same for each subject in the different 
fields. 

2. MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, MODE, AND AVERAGE TIME 
DEVOTED TO SUBJECTS AND FIELDS 

MATHEMATICS 

The average time devoted to mathematics remained practically 
constant and was approximately three years. The highest maxi- 
mum was five and the lowest three and two-thirds. The minimum 
for 1860-70 was one year and thereafter two years. Three years 
was the most frequent mode. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELD? AND SUBJECTS 101 

Arithmetic. — The average time devoted to this subject never 
reached one year, the highest being eight-ninths and the lowest 
five-twelfths. The average time increased two-thirteenths for the 
entire period. The maximum was as high as two years, one year 
being the lowest and most frequent. One-third was constant as a 
minimum. The mode was as high as one year, one-third being the 
most frequent. 

Algebra. — The average except for 1860-65 was above one year. 
There was a gradual increase and at the close the average time was 
approximately one and one-half. The lowest maximum was one 
and two-thirds, the highest two and one-half, and two years most 
frequent. The lowest minimum was one-half, the highest and 
most frequent being one. The most frequent mode was one, it 
being one and one-half at the close. 

Geometry. — Average time was approximately one year, increas- 
ing from thirteen-sixteenths to one and one-sixth. Lowest maxi- 
mum was one year, two years being the highest and most frequent. 
The lowest minimum was one-third, two-thirds being the highest 
and most frequent. The mode remained one year throughout. 

Trigonometry. — The average time ranges from one-third to one- 
half year. Lowest maximum was one-half, the highest being one 
year and two-thirds the most frequent. Lowest minimum was 
one-fourth, one-third being the highest, and most frequent. Prac- 
tically no change occurred in the amount of time devoted to the 
subject. 

Surveying and navigation was negligible after 1870. It was a 
short-time subject, the average time devoted to it being between 
one-third and one-half year. 



The average time devoted to this field ranged from one and one- 
half to approximately three years at the close. Comparing the 
first and last period, the average time increased approximately 
one year. The lowest maximum was three and the highest six and 
one-third. It is very probable that maxima after 1880 are above 
the amount actually offered on account of confusion in terminology. 
The lowest minimum was one-third, the highest one and one-half, 
one year being the most frequent. There is considerable confusion 
concerning mode, it being between one and two years before 1880, 
and between two and four years thereafter. 



102 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Grammar. ^—The average time was below one year, the highest 
being eight-ninths in 1881-85, and the lowest six-elevenths in 
1891-95. The lowest maximum was one, the highest two, and 
the most frequent one and one-third. The minimum was one- 
third throughout except for the period 1881-85 when it was one- 
half. Considerable confusion exists as to the mode, the lowest and 
most frequent being one-third and the highest one year. Grammar 
declined in importance both absolutely and also relatively as com- 
pared with other subjects in its field. 

Composition.^ — Average time approximately one year at the 
beginning and one year at the close. The latter was the highest 
average, the lowest being a trifle above one-third, 1866-70. The 
lowest maximum was one-half and the highest two years. The 
minimum was one-third throughout. The lowest and most frequent 
mode was one-third and the highest two-thirds. On the whole there 
was an increase in the time devoted to the subject.^ 

Rhetoric. — Average time slightly above one-half, the lowest 
and highest averages being one-third and two-thirds respectively. 
The lowest maximum was one-half, the highest and most frequent 
being one year. The minimum was one-third throughout. The 
lowest and most frequent mode was one-third, the highest being 
two-thirds. From the opening to the close there was an increase of 
time of approximately one-fifth year.* 

Literature.^ — The average time devoted to this subject increased 
from approximately one-half at the beginning to one and one-half 
at the close. The lowest maximum was two-thirds, the highest 
three and one-half years, and one and one-half, two, and three and 
one-half were equal in point of frequency. The lowest and most 
frequent minimum was one-third and two-thirds was the highest. 
The lowest mode was two-thirds, the highest and most frequent 
being one year. The increases in amount of time devoted to English 
are found chiefly in the increase in literature. 

SCIENCE 

The average time devoted to science remained practically 
unchanged comparing 1860 and 1900. There was more or less 

1 The subjects entitled grammar, analysis, sentence analysis, and the like are grouped since it is very 
apparent that the various titles are used to designate the same general type of subject-matter. 

2 Computations are only approximately correct, since the time devoted to the subject is not clearly 
indicated, particularly in the earlier years. 

3 The computations in this subject like others in its field are only approximately correct on account 
of the introduction of the general term "Enghsh" about 1880. 

• Jhid. 

6 The term was loosely used and included English literature, American literature, classics, history of 
literature, reading, etc. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 103 

fluctuation from period to period which was probably due to the 
fact that the same schools do not furnish data for all the tables 
rather than to any general tendency. The maximum also remains 
constant except for fluctuations referred to above. The fluctuations 
are greater in both minimum and mode than in either the average 
or maximum. The minimum decreases slightly for the whole period 
while the mode increases two-thirds of a year. The maximum held 
closely around five years except for one period 1886-90 when it was 
six and one-half. The average was never below three years or 
above three and one-half. The highest minimum was two years, the 
lowest was one year and this was also the most frequent. The 
highest and most frequent mode was four years and the lowest 
two and one-third. 

Physiology. — The average time devoted to this subject remained 
approximately one-half year to the close. The maximum increased 
from two-thirds to one year while the minimum, one-third, remained 
unchanged. The mode was one-third in 1860 and one-half after 
1880. Physical geography was also a short-time subject and its 
history is almost identical with that of physiology. 

Physics. — This was one of the longer-time science subjects and 
the average increased approximately from three-fourths of a year 
to one year. The maximum remained one year while the mode 
increased from two-thirds of a year to one year. The minimum 
increased from one-third of a year to one-half year. 

Chemistry. — The average was the same in 1860 as that of physics 
and this had increased only by a small fraction in 1900. The 
subject was identical with physics as to maximum, minimum, and 
mode. 

Botany. — The average time remained one-half year and the mode 
decreased slightly. The ma.ximum increase from two-thirds of a 
year to one year and the minimum remains the same. Zoology gains 
slightly in average time and the minimum remains the same. The 
maximum increases from two-thirds of a year to one year and the 
mode increased from one-third of a year to one-half. 

Geology. — This subject remained unchanged except for negligible 
fractions. Astronomy shows a slight decrease in time as to average 
and maximum, the minimum remains the same and the mode 
increases from one-third to one-half year. 

THE SOCIAL STUDIES 

The increase in average time devoted to this field amounts to a 
little less than one year. This was slightly less than the gain in the 



104 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

case of English. The maximum increased two years, the mode from 
one year to one and one-half and the minimum from one-third of a 
year to one year. There was little fluctuation in either the average 
or the maximum, the increase on the whole being steady and unin- 
terrupted. This was not true of the minimum and the mode, 
although the fluctuations were less pronounced in the latter than in 
the former. 

European history.^ — The gain in time devoted to the social 
studies was largely due to increase in time given to European his- 
tory. The gain in average time was seven-tenths of a year and the 
maximum increased from one and one-half to three years. The 
mode increased from two-thirds of a year to one year and the 
minimum decreased from two-thirds to one-half year. There were 
some fluctuations, but on the whole the increase in time particularly 
as to average and maximum was uninterrupted. 

United States history. — Except for negligible fractions as to 
average and mode, no change occurred in amount of time devoted 
to this subject. Civics shows an increase of two-ninths of a year in 
average time and one-third in maximum. The minimum remains 
one-third and the mode changes from one-third to one-half year. 
Political economy shows no change in minimum or mode each 
remaining one-third of a year. The average increased from one- 
third to one-half year and the maximum from one-third to one year. 

FOREIGN LANGU.\GE 

This field presents considerable confusion. One reason for this is 
that details for foreign language are not given in some of the earlier 
courses of study. This is particularly true of the modern languages. 
For example, the mark thus, x, in Table B shows that the schools 
oflfered Greek, German, French, or all of these languages, but that 
no data are given indicating whether one, two, or more years were 
devoted to each. It is not probable that the maximum was thirteen 
years during the period 1860-65 and again during 1871-75 and only 
ten years from 1866-70. It is reasonable to assume that the maxi- 
mum for foreign language does not suffer such violent fluctuations 
and it is not probable that the maximum for the period as a whole 
fluctuated to the extent indicated. 

If one takes into account all the data, the conclusion that there 
was not much change in the amount of time seems justified. The 

1 See footnotes to Tables XX-XXVII. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 105 

average time devoted to Latin was approximately three and 
one-fourth years. The maximum was four years except in the case 
of one school which devoted four and one-third years to the subject 
in 1900. One and two years constitute with equal frequency the 
minimum and four years the most frequent mode. 

Greek was practically negligible as a high-school subject partic- 
ularly after 1880. The table indicates increase in average, maxi- 
mum, and minimum time devoted to the subject, while the mode 
remains unchanged except for two periods when it increases from 
two to three years. 

The maximum for German of four years was constant except for 
the period 1866-70 when it was three years. Two years was the 
most frequent mode, and the minimum ranged from two-thirds of a 
year to two years with one year the most frequent. The average 
ranged from two and one-third to three years and was two and 
seven-tenths at the close. The average time devoted to French was 
lowest at one and one-half years, highest at three years, and was two 
years at the close. The maximum was three years during the first 
period, two years at the close, and four years was the most frequent. 
The mode ranged from one to three years, being two years at the 
close and this was the most frequent. The average was two years at 
the close. One and two years were equally frequent as the mini- 
mum. 

COMMERCI.AL SUBJECTS 

This field received very little attention before 1890, the maxi- 
mum time being less than two years except for one period (two years, 
1876-80) until that date. After that time the maximum increased 
rapidly and was seven years at the close. This increase was due 
to the introduction of stenography and typewriting. The average 
was less than one year until the date mentioned above, the lowest 
being one-third and the highest was one and three-sevenths years at 
the close. The most frequent minimum was one-third and the mode 
ranged from one-third to two-thirds of a year, being one-half at the 
close. 

THE MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 

These subjects fall into two groups. The first group consisted 
of mental philosophy, moral philosophy, logic. Christian evidences, 
and the like. They were all short-time subjects and declined in 
importance resulting in less time being devoted to the field. The 
maximum decreased from two and two-thirds to one year in 1885 



106 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

and the average also decreased during the same time from one and 
one-eighth to two-thirds of a year. The manual training group 
then came in and the maximum was three years in 1885-90 and 
seven years at the close. The average, however, is still low, approxi- 
mately one year, due to pedagogy and psychology which were 
short-time subjects. 

3. REQUIRED SUBJECTS AND ELECTIVES 

Constants and variables have already been discussed [pp. 75-9], 
and it was there shown that mathematics, English, and the social 
studies (after 1870) were offered by all the schools. This does not 
mean, of course, that the subjects in these fields were required of all 
the students, since the majority of the schools included in this 
study, offered opportunity for election. 

No subject seems to have been universally required although 
some were practically so. Algebra and geometry were sometimes 
not required in commercial courses' but this was not the rule partic- 
ularly in three- and four-year courses.'' English was not required in 
some of the earlier classical courses, but the later practice was to 
require something in this field of all students. In science, the rule 
was to require physics of all students although exceptions are found.' 
In the field of social studies there seems to have been no one subject 
universally required of all students. 

It will be seen from the above that elective subjects included a 
wide range, there being no field which did not furnish one or more. 
As has been pointed out, algebra and geometry, with few exceptions, 
were required while trigonometry was more frequently an elective. 
Grammar and composition, if offered, were almost invariably re- 
quired, while rhetoric and literature were frequently elective. In 
science, as has been said, physics was usually required. Of the 
other sciences, botany, physical geography, and physiology were 
relatively less frequently elective than geology, chemistry, astron- 
omy, and zoology. Of the latter group, zoology seems to have 
been more frequently elective than the other three. 

Of the social studies. United States history and European his- 
tory were less frequently elective than civics and political economy. 
The latter was relatively the most frequently elective. 

I Cf. p. 39. 

« Cf. 32. 

'Cf. 20, 21, 23. 



TIME DEVOTED TO FIELDS AND SUBJECTS 107 

If any foreign language was required, it was almost invariably 
Latin. When two or more foreign languages were offered it was 
the common practice to permit election. 

Commercial subjects were usually elective and the same was 
true of pedagogy and psychology'. 

There seems to have been no generally accepted criteria for 
determining required subjects and electives. College entrance 
requirements, of course, determined the subjects required in 
preparatory courses and these included foreign language and 
"such other subjects as are requisite to prepare young men for the 
university."' In referring to those who wished to prepare for 
college the following statement is found in the Chicago report: 
"Those in preparation for college who desire it can omit the English 
branches, except the requisite mathematics, and complete the 
course in three years."- English branches as here used meant sub- 
jects other than ancient languages. As entrance requirements 
changed required subjects changed. For example, when little or no 
English was required for entrance, the subjects in this field were 
offered in non-preparatory courses in place of the ancient languages. 
As time went on, more English work was required in all courses 
irrespective of entrance requirements. The subjects in this field, 
however, continued to be elective with foreign language to the close. 
The science subjects were also substitutes for foreign language, the 
election here being largely on the same basis as was the case in 
English. 

At the beginning of the period covered by Parts I and II, it is 
clear that the line of cleavage was between foreign language, partic- 
ularly ancient language, and the so-called "English studies." The 
courses given on pages 20 and 21 show this distinction. Except for 
this, however, there was no uniformity in the matter of substitu- 
tions. As time went on, and courses were multiplied, the confusion 
concerning electives increased. This will be seen by a study of 
electives provided in the courses given on pages 20 to 42. Latin and 
Greek could be substituted for "other courses" by those preparing 
for college.' Latin was an elective with commercial subjects."" His- 
tory and German were substitutes for Latin, ^ and "English studies" 

' Cl. p. 20. 
» Cf . p. 26. 
> Cf. pp. 21, 22. 
* Cf. p. 22. 
s Cf. p. 29. 



108 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

for German and Greek. ' Pedagogy was an elective for German and 
Latin, and Greek for bookkeeping, civics, and science.^ 

Two subjects were required by St. Louis'^ from the following: 
Latin or German or French; zoology or geology, or Greek or 
Chemistry or mental philosophy or trigonometry. German or 
French were elective for English history, political science, mental 
science, and astronomy.^ In the German-English course, German 
was a substitute for general history, English history, civil govern- 
ment, and political economy.* German and French were also 
substitutes for English literature and physiology." The following 
substitutes were allowed for four years of Latin or German : compo- 
sition, botany, physical geography, civil government, rhetoric, 
literature. United States history.' A comparatively wide range of 
electives is shown, but no information is given concerning what plan 
was used in selection. 

It is clear as shown on pages 20 to 42 that outside of college 
preparatory curricula, no uniformity existed concerning content or 
organization of courses. The same was true of required subjects 
and electives. 

■ Cf. p. 26. 

' Cf. p. 29. 

» Cf. p. 29. 

« Cf. pp. 26, 29, 30, 33. 

5 Cf. p. 29. 

« Cf. p. 30. 

'Cf.p. 31. 



CHAPTER VIII 

INFLUENCE OF SIZE AND LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 

1 . LARGE AND SMALL SCHOOLS 

The high schools in the cities and larger towns, as would be 
expected, offered a wider range of subjects than did the schools in 
the smaller towns, and certain subjects are more frequently found in 
the curricula of these schools. The modern languages were more 
frequently taught in the larger schools and this was particularly 
true of French. Trigonometry, chemistry, and geology were less 
frequently offered by the small schools. Literature was a large- 
school subject in the earlier years, and the amount of time devoted 
to it was usually less in the small schools after it had become a 
constant in all the schools. Grammar seems to have been offered 
more frequently in the smaller schools, while the size of the school 
appears to have had no determining influence in the case of rhetoric. 
The larger schools provided more electives through a larger number 
of parallel courses and this, theoretically at least, furnished different 
types of education for different classes of students. 

These different courses, however, resulted from the fact that the 
large schools were able to offer a wider range of traditional subjects 
rather than from any attempt to meet in any adequate way the 
commercial or industrial demands of these urban communities. 
The president of the Chicago Board of Education in his annual 
report for 1896 says: 

There is yet one important phase of human activity not touched by our high- 
school curriculum, a phase which in a large sense dominates and gives direction to 
all the other elements of public concern. I refer to the commercial interest.' 

Chicago had already established the English and Manual Training 
High School and this movement was under way in some other cities. 
On the whole, however, commercial and industrial courses were not 
particularly characteristic of city high schools even at the close of 
the period. A comparison of curricula offered by cities and small 
towns fails to reveal that either rural conditions or urban conditions 
affected the character of educational opportunity offered, aside 
from the fact that cities provided a wider range of traditional 
subjects. For example, compare Columbus, Ohio and Adel, Iowa, 

' Report Board 0} Education, 1896, pp. 28-32. 

109 



no THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

the latter a small county seat town.' The curricula differ in no way 
that would suggest that the former was a large city and the latter 
a small town school except in amount of work offered. Adel devoted 
a little more time to mathematics and less time to other fields. 
Columbus devoted more time to European history, one year more 
to science, and offered Latin, Greek, French, German, and Spanish, 
whereas Adel offered only Latin. Both offered commercial subjects, 
Columbus offering the wider range, and this is the only difference 
that could be interpreted as reflecting community demands of a 
definite sort. This interpretation even becomes doubtful when 
comparison is made of commercial subjects. 

2. INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY 

Conclusions relating to influence of locality upon curricula are 
largely negative. As has been pointed out, commercial and indus- 
trial demands had but little influence upon the work of the schools 
up to the close of the nineteenth century. We should not expect, 
therefore, that locality would determine the character of the curric- 
ula from the standpoint of industrial and commercial interests. 
In so far as bookkeeping was taught, there is no apparent connec- 
tion between the presence of the subject in a curriculum and the 
location of the school.^ 

A comparison of Individual schools located in various states 
fails to reveal differences in curricula that are not found by com- 
paring schools located in the same state. In the older settled states, 
high schools were established earlier and certain traditional subjects 
sometimes retained their places in the curricula for a considerable 
time after they cease to appear in the majority of schools. This 
is not, however, due to the location of the schools, but to the date 
of establishment.' 

It is true that some subjects were offered in a higher per- 
centage of schools in one state than in another but these differences 
were also found among the schools of the same state and have but 
little significance. Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Minnesota have 
a relatively high percentage of schools offering chemistry while 

1 Cf. Appendix, Table H. 

^ Richmond, Indiana, and Oskaloosa, Iowa, neither of which was a commercial center, oflFered the 
subject, white Dayton and Cleveland, Ohio, did not. Columbus, Ohio, offered the subject after 1885, and 
SpringSeld, Illinois, after 1870. Madison, Wisconsin, offered it in 1860, 1883, 1887, and 1898, but did not 
offer it in 1867, 1876, and 1892. 

^ Dayton, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, and Madison, Wisconsin, retained mental philosophy until about 
1885. These schools were established relatively early. 



INFLUENCE OF SIZE AND LOCATION OF SCHOOLS lU 

those of Iowa, Ohio, and Wisconsin rank much lower in this sub- 
ject.' The fact is, however, that if small as well as large schools are 
taken into account, the majority of schools in no state offered this 
subject. There are also fluctuations in other sciences but they have 
no apparent significance in revealing community demands. It is 
not likely, for example, that the popular interest in astronomy was 
any greater in Iowa than in Wisconsin and yet 6 per cent of the 
schools in the former state and only }:£ of 1 per cent in the latter 
offered the subject in 1896.^ We find equal percentages of schools 
offering physical geography in Illinois and Michigan, while the 
ratio of schools offering geology in the former to those of the latter 
is 2 to 3. 

Algebra and geometry were practically constants. Trigonome- 
try was more frequently offered in the larger schools than in the 
smaller while the reverse was true of arithmetic. There is no 
evidence that the English subjects were in any way Influenced by 
locality.' Latin was universally required for entrance to classical 
courses in higher institutions and the percentage of schools offering 
the subject was no doubt largely determined by the extent to which 
they attempted to meet these requirements. The highest percent- 
age of schools offering German was in Wisconsin and the next high- 
est, in Michigan. "* One would expect that states having a large 
German population would have a higher percentage of schools 
offering the language, but Minnesota with a large Scandinavian 
population had a much larger percentage of schools offering German 
than did Iowa with a relatively large German population.* 

It is evident that the same generalized educational ideals 
controlled in all the states included in this study. As has been 
pointed out, the chief differences in curricula were due to differences 
in population rather than to the fact that schools were situated in 
different parts of the area. Sectional differences were minor and 
had no particular significance. 

3. INfDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SCHOOLS 

Lack of uniformity in curricula has been pointed out in connec- 
tion with Table I which shows the wide differences in curricula 

' Details for all the states given in the Report United States Commissioner Education, 1896-97, II, 
1893-94. 

> IMd. 

'In the earlier years the large schools offered more work in literature, but they were only leaders 
in a movement participated in by all the schools later. 

' Report United States Commissioner Education, 1896-97, II, 1893-94. 

ilhid. 



112 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

organization. Also in Tables XI-XVIII is shown lack of uniform- 
ity in time devoted to subjects and fields. The difference between 
large and small schools has been discussed above. It is very evident 
in the light of these facts that individual differences were pro- 
nounced, but it is clear that any comprehensive treatment of the 
topic under discussion would require a detailed description of the 
curricula offered by a large number of schools included in Tables 
A-H. Few curricula were precisely alike in any period and changes 
took place in the curricula of all the schools from time to time. 
These differences consisted in emphasis placed upon the various 
fields offered by all the schools and the presence or absence of 
subjects belonging to the miscellaneous group. St. Louis, Missouri, 
emphasized English, particularly literature, and was one of the few 
schools which offered instruction in art. Chicago, Illinois, empha- 
sized science, and was one of the schools offering pedagogy. Cleve- 
land, Ohio, was one of the few schools which emphasized English 
in the earlier years. Madison, Wisconsin, offered commercial sub- 
jects and pedagogy. Wilton, Iowa, a small town, offered more work 
in the social studies in 1876 than was offered in any other schools 
included in the list of twenty. Springfield, Illinois, offered the 
maximum in this field in 1891. Oskaloosa, Iowa, offered the maxi- 
mum in science in the same period and was one of the schools which 
always offered a large amount of science. A comprehensive treat- 
ment of this topic, as has been said, would consist in pointing out 
the emphasis and neglect of each individual school, all of which is 
shown in detail in the Appendix, Tables A-H. 

4. CHANGES IN CURRICULA OF INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS 

An analysis of the curricula of three schools follows. Parenthe- 
ses indicate the subjects which were not offered in the other curric- 
ulum. Figures show length of time devoted to fields and subjects. 

MADISON, WISCONSIN 

FOUR-YEAR COURSE IN EACH CASE 

1863 1898 

Mathematics, 3H Mathematics, 2 J^ 

Arithmetic, 1 Arithmetic, % 

Algebra, 1]4 Algebra, 1 

Geometry, 1 Geometry, 1 



INFLUENCE OF SIZE AND LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 



113 



English, 22^ 

Analysis, % 
Word analysis, J^ 
Rhetoric, 1 
Literature, Js 

Science, 3^ 
Physiology, % 
Physical Geography, % 
Natural Philosophy % 
(Chemistry, J3) 
(Geology, I-3) 
(Botany, \i) 
(Astronomy, }.g) 

Social Studies, 1 
(Ancient History, 3-3) 
(Political Economy, ],Q 



Foreign Language, 3 
Latin, 3 



Commercial Subjects 
(Bookkeeping, y^) 

Miscellaneous Subjects, 1 % 
(Mental Philosophy, %) 
(Moral Philosophy, \i) 
(Butler's ^na/ogy, Js) 
(Logic, \i) 



English, 2 

(Subjects not specified) 
First-year English, 3 days per week 
Second-year English, 3 days per week 
Third-year English, 2 days per week 
Fourth-year English, 2 days per week 

Science, 3 K 
Physiology, ^ 
Physical Geography, 1 
Physics, 1 
(Biology, 1) 



Social Studies, 3V5 
(United States History, 1) 
(Civil Government, 1) 
(History, 1^) 

Foreign Language, 12 

Latin, 4 
(German, 4) 
(Greek, 4) 

Commercial Subjects 

None 

Miscellaneous Subjects, % 
(Pedagogy, %) 
(Drawing, J^) 



CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 

FOUR-YEAR COURSE IN EACH CASE 



1862 
Mathematics, 2% 

Algebra, 1 
Geometry, 1 
Trigonometry, % 

English, IH 
Rhetoric, J^ 
Literature, % 



Science, 3 
Natural Philosophy, % 
Chemistry, ]/2 
Geology, J^ 
(Botany, %) 

(Physical Geography, ],i) 
(Physiology, H) 



1892 



Mathematics, 3 
Algebra, 1 
Geometry, 13^ 
Trigonometry, J^ 

English 2 J^ 

Rhetoric (and Composition %) 

Classics, 1 

(History of English Literature, 1) 

Science, 4 
Physics, 1 
Chemistry, 1 
Geology, 14 
(Biology, 1) 
(Astronomy, %) 



114 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Social Studies, 1^ 
United States Constitution, 
Universal History, 1 
(Political Economy, %) 



Foreign Language, 13 
Latin, 4 
German, 4 
French, 3 
(Greek, 2) 

Commercial Subjects 

None 



Miscellaneous Subjects 
(Mental Philosophy, }4) 



Social Studies, 4 
Civics, }^ 
General History, 1 
(Ancient History, 1) 
(Political History, %) 
(History, 1) 

Foreign Language, 16 

Latin, 4 
German, 4 
French, 4 
(Spanish, 4) 

Commercial Subjects, 3 
(Bookkeeping, 1) 
(Stenography, 1) 
(Typewriting, 1) 

Miscellaneous Subjects, 5 
(Psychology, 1) 
(Manual Training, 4) 



OSKALOOSA, IOWA 

COURSE THREE YEARS IN 1873, FOUR YEARS IN 1897 



1873 
Mathematics, 3J^ 
Arithmetic, 1 
Algebra, l}i 
Geometry, 1 

English 2}4 
Grammar, 1 
Rhetoric, % 
(Elocution, %) 

Science, 2^ 
Physical Geography, % 
Natural Philosophy, }/2 
Botany, ^3 
Zoology, J 3 
(Physiology, }4) 

Social Studies, ?4 
Outlines of History, % 



Foreign Language, 6 



Latin, 3 
German, 



1897 
Mathematics, 3}^ 
Arithmetic, 3^ 
Algebra, IJ^ 
Geometry, 1}^ 

English, 3 
Grammar, }^ 
Rhetoric, ^2 
Literature, 2 

Science, 3 H 
Physical Geography, J^ 
Physics, 1 
Botany, J^ 
Zoology, ^2 
(Chemistry, J^) 
(Geology, 3^) 

Social Studies, 3 
Ancient History, 3^ 
Modern History, }^ 
(Civics, 3^) 

(United States History, }4) 
(English History, 3^) 
(Political Economy, J^) 

Foreign Language, 5 
Latin, 4 
German, 1 



INFLUENCE OF SIZE AND LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 115 

Commercial Subjects Commercial Subjects, 2 

None (Bookkeeping, 1) 

(Commercial Arithmetic, J^) 
(Commercial Law, }/£) 

No miscellaneous subjects offered in either course. 

A comparison of the changes which took place in the curricula 
of these three schools reveals the same tendencies common to the 
high schools of the period. Increase of time devoted to English"^ 
and the social studies, disappearance of the old miscellaneous sub- 
jects and the offering of less science subjects with more time devoted 
to those offered, were all general tendencies. Oskaloosa was an 
exception to the tendency in science and furnished an example of 
the survival in some schools of the earlier practice. 

These schools also serve as examples to show the lack of uni- 
formity near the close of the period both in subjects offered and in 
time devoted to fields and subjects. All three schools offered alge- 
bra and geometry while two offered arithmetic and one trigonome- 
try. The time devoted to mathematics remained the same in one 
school, increased in another, and decreased in the third. In science, 
physiology appears in both curricula of iVIadison and only in the 
earlier curricula of the other two schools. Physics was a constant 
in all the schools, while physical geography was constant in Madison 
and Oskaloosa and is found only in the earlier curriculum of Chi- 
cago. Chemistry and geology were constants in Chicago, are found 
in the earlier curriculum of Madison and the later one of Oskaloosa. 
Astronomy was offered in the earlier curriculum of Madison and the 
later one of Chicago, and in neither of Oskaloosa. Botany persisted 
in all the schools, while zoology is a constant in Oskaloosa and 
appears in the later curricula of the other two schools. 

The increase in time devoted to the social studies in all the 
schools resulted in important changes in the subjects. One cannot 
be certain concerning the changes in European history because of 
the confusion in terminology', but it was offered in each of the 
curricula of all the schools. None of the schools offered United 
States history in the earlier curricula, while both Madison and Oska- 
loosa did in the later ones. Madison and Chicago offered political 
economy in the earlier curricula and Oskaloosa in the later one. 
Chicago offered Latin, German, and French in both curricula, Greek 

I Madison, Wisconsin, as will be seen, devoted less total time to English although it was offered 
throughout the four years. Decrease in time was due to reduction in number of recitations per week. In 
the report of that year the principal of the high school reconmiended that more time be devoted to English 
and the report of 1900-1901 shows that this was done. 



116 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

in the earlier, and Spanish in the later. Madison offered Latin and 
German in both. 

None of the commercial subjects were offered in the earlier 
curricula of Chicago and Oskaloosa, and only bookkeeping by 
Madison. The latter offered no commercial work in the later curric- 
ulum, while Chicago provided bookkeeping, stenography, and type- 
writing, and Oskaloosa, bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, and 
commercial law. 

Oskaloosa offered none of the miscellaneous subjects. In the 
case of Madison, the older subjects were displaced by a meager 
offering of pedagogy and drawing. Psychology took the place of 
mental philosophy in the curricula of Chicago. 

Madison offered neither commercial nor industrial subjects. 
Oskaloosa offered the former and Chicago both. The latter city 
was one of the few leaders in the industrial educational development 
which has made such rapid progress during the last decade. 



PART II 
CONDITIONS AND CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 

" CHAPTER IX 

INTRODUCTORY 

In a study of the development of curricula, consideration of the 
subject-matter used in instruction in the various fields is quite as 
important as that of the subjects. In fact only by an examination 
of subject-matter is one able to ascertain the real character of edu- 
cational opportunity provided by the subjects constituting the 
curricula under consideration. It is therefore obvious in a com- 
parative study of this kind that subject-matter must receiv'e its 
due share of attention. Viewed from this standpoint, changes 
are more radical and important than a study of the subjects alone 
reveals. It is the purpose of Part II to make analyses of subject- 
matter taught in the various subjects and to indicate the changes 
which took place. It should be said in this connection that it is 
not possible to do more than show the general tendencies which 
mark the lines of development in the various fields. 

Subject-matter will be considered from two standpoints — 
amount offered and character of material used in instruction. The 
former has already been considered in Part I in considerable detail 
and will be treated here only for the purpose of connecting that 
discussion with the subject-matter of the several subjects. 

One of the things revealed by the present study is that fields 
and subjects difi^er greatly. In some fields, ancient language for 
example, very little change either in amount offered or in character 
of material used has taken place. English furnishes an example of 
radical changes in literature and little or no change in grammar. 
In the case of some science subjects, botany for example, important 
changes have occurred, while in astronomy practically no change is 
noted. 

It is very evident, therefore, that an appearance of unevenness 
in the treatment of the various subjects is inevitable. Of some 
subjects, Latin for example, little can be said for the reason that 
the subject-matter remained practically unchanged. On the other 
hand, English is an example of a field requiring more detailed treat- 

117 



118 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

merit in order to make clear the extent and character of the changes 
which have taken place in the subject-matter used in instruction. 
The same general plan of treatment will be followed as in Part I, 
the various fields and subjects being considered under their appro- 
priate titles. 

MATHEMATICS 

It has been shown' that the amount of time devoted to this 
field remained practically unchanged throughout the entire period. 
In view of this, and also as shown by an examination of textbooks, 
it is probable that no great change occurred in the amount of 
material offered although t is clear that some diminution took 
place. Some change, however, is evident in the character of subject- 
matter. This was brought about in three ways — first, by the 
decline in importance of trigonometry and the final disappearance 
of such subjects as analytics, calculus, surveying and navigation, 
and engineering.^ It should be said in this connection that the 
relative importance of trigonometry In 1900 was less than is indi- 
cated by Table X since the data were taken chiefly from the cur- 
ricula of the arger schools. Had this table included data from a 
proportional number of curricula of the smaller schools, the per- 
centage of the schools offering the subjects would have been cor- 
respondingly less. 

The first way, then, in which changes took place was by means 
of elimination. The second way was through an extension of time 
given to other mathematical subjects, particularly algebra and 
geometry, resulting in additional material being offered in these 
subjects. The third, and least important change, was the elimina- 
tion of material in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, and the 
substitution of other content. Clearness in treatment will be best 
secured by treating each of the^e subjects separately. 

Changes were more pronounced in arithmetic than n either of 
the other mathematical subjects. A comparison of the textbooks 
used in the earlier period with those of the later shows that the 
amount of material decreased and became more simple in character. 
One of the texts in common use until about 1875 was Ray's Higher 
Arithmetic.^ This book was an advanced text and contained in 
addition to the usual arithmetical topics the following: circulating 

1 Cf. Tables XX-XXVII. 

2 cf. Appendix, Tables A and H; also Table X, chap. vi. 

3 Ray, Joseph, Ray's Higher Arithmetic: The^Principles 0/ Arithmetic^__Analyzcd and Practically 
Appliedf For Advanced Students, 1858. 



INTRODUCTORY 119 

decimals, aliquot parts, exchanges, accounts current, storage, 
equation of payments, annuities, series (arithmetical and geo- 
metrical), permutations, combinations, systems of notation, duo- 
decimals, mechanical powers, general average, rate bills for schools, 
allegation. 

One of the features of this book was a list of "promiscuous 
exercises." Two sets of problems were given: fifty examples were 
to be analyzed presumably for the "mental discipline" derived 
from the process, and about an equal number was designated 
"practical examples." The following are typical problems from 
the first set: 

% of my money equals J^ of yours. If we put our money together what 
part will I own? 

I sold an article for )^ more than it cost me to A who sold it for $6, which was 
^ less than it cost him. What did it cost me? 

At what time between 6 and 7 o'clock are the hour and minute hands 20 
minutes apart? 

The following are typical of the practical examples: 

How far apart should the knots of a log-line be to indicate every half-minute 
a speed of 1 mile per hour? 

Find the least number which, divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, leaves a remainder 
of 1 each time. 

Bought eggs on credit, the first time 1 dozen, and each succeeding time 3 
more. My last purchase was 7}^ dozen. The bill was presented for 120 dozen. 
How much too large was it? 

Scattered throughout the book was a considerable number of 
problems dealing with business transactions and some emphasis 
was therefore placed upon what later came to be called commercial 
arithmetic. On the whole, however, the form of the problems is 
considered of more importance than the content. In the preface 
the author says "In questions of proportion and generally through- 
out the book, the analytical method of solution has been preferred 
to mere formal and irrational directions, for no true development 
of the intellectual powers or satisfactory knowledge of any science 
can be attained until the spirit of every operation is clearly seen 
through its form." 

Another book of this same general type and still in use as late 
as 1870, was Greenleaf's Nationa' Arithmetic.^ This contains the 
topics found in Ray's text and also the customary list of pro- 

' Gezenieai', Benjamin, The National Arilhmelic in the Inductive System: Combining the Analytical 
and Synthetic Methods Together with the Cancelling System, 1850. 



120 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

miscuous examples. He states in the preface that arithmetic has 
a twofold aim — "a practical knowledge of numbers and the art of 
calculation and the discipline of the mental powers." 

Milne's Practical Arithmetic'^ was not so difficult as the texts 
above mentioned and in reality a grammar-school book. The special 
topics mentioned in connection with Ray's text are not found in 
this book. Promiscuous examples, or the familiar puzzle type, are 
still retained. Robinson's Series were very similar to Milne's in 
content and arrangement. In one of these texts- which seems to 
have been in common use in the high school and was devoted 
chiefly to the elementary phase of the subject, allegation is still 
retained, but the other advanced topics are omitted. The book 
contains no list of promiscuous examples. 

The later editions of the Robinson and Wentworth Series do 
not dififer materially from the earlier editions or from the Milne 
books. As has been pointed out, the tendency was toward sim- 
plification by omitting the more abstract topics and by substituting 
the more practical problems for the puzzle problems found in the 
older books. The transition, however, was not sudden and no 
particular date can be assigned as marking the time when the 
change took place. Robinson's books were used as early as 1870 
and Ray's as late as 1895. The general tendency was to displace 
the latter type by the former, and this was rather completely 
accomplished by 1900. 

Little need be said concerning algebra. There was practically 
no change in the character of subject-matter in elementary algebra 
after the middle of the seventeenth century.' The change was in 
amount of subject-matter used in instruction. Tables XX and 
XXVII show that the average time devoted to algebra in 1865 was 
less than one year while in 1900 it was approximately a year and a 
half. The minimum at the former date was one-half year and at 
the latter one year. This increase in time means increase in 
subject-matter as shown by the textbooks, and these constitute the 
only source of information. College entrance requirements are 
indefinitely stated and throw but little light upon the question. 

1 Milne, Williaii J., A Practical Arithmetic on the Inductive Plan, Inctuding Oral and Written Exer- 
cises, 1877. 

- Fish, D/\niel W. (Editor of Robinson's Series of Arithmetics), A Complete Arithmetic, Oral and 
Written, 1881. 

' Cyclopedia oj Education, 1911, I, 92. Textbooks in use 1860-1900 show that the only change of 
importance in subject-matter had to do with the amount of material used in instruction. Cf. Davies, 
Loomis, Robinson, Olney, Milne, Wells, and Wentworth texts. ^ 



INTRODUCTORY 121 

In the earlier years students were admitted only by examination 
and the requirements are not specific. For example, the University 
of Illinois in 1868 required a "satisfactory examination in each of 
the branches ordinarily taught in the common schools of the state."' 
In 1873, algebra is mentioned in the list of subjects in which 
examinations were required but the extent of preparation is not 
indicated. Later (1877) the work is specified as "including equa- 
tions of the second degree and the calculus of radical quantities." 
This statement of requirements in the subject is repeated in the 
catalog as late as 1891. This indicates no change in the subject- 
matter to be offered. The textbooks also show this and further 
that problems and exercises were more numerous, thereby bringing 
about a change not in the character of the material used in instruc- 
tion but merely an increase in the amount of work required. 

Geometry, like algebra, has a brief history. "It was from 1850 
to 1875 that plane geometry took its definite place in the secondary 
school."^ In the earlier type of textbook proofs were given in 
essay form and there were no exercises provided.' This was fol- 
lowed by a text containing exercises and became the typical text 
in the high school.'' The next step was the "unit" page; i.e., the 
material was arranged in steps to aid the eye, one proposition to a 
page where this was possible.^ The Wentworth geometry was a 
pioneer in this respect in this country.'' These statements repre- 
sent the only changes of much importance that took place in this 
subject. 

The amount of time devoted to the subject increased somewhat 
as shown by Tables XX and XXVII. This shows that whereas 
the average was approximately three-fourths of a year in 1860-65, 
this had risen to a fraction less than one and one-fifth years in 
1896-1900. While the maximum and minimum had increased 
two-thirds and one-third respectively, the mode had remained the 
same, one year. 

The changes which took place can perhaps be made clear in no 
better way than by comparing Davies Legendre' and Wentworth's 

' Ciitalof^, Vnhersity of Illinois, 186S-69. Entrance requirements. 
2 A Cyclopedia of Edmalion, 1911, III. 51. 
'Smith, D. E., The Tcachtns of Geometry, 1911, p. 72. 
'A Cyclopedia of Eilucalion, 1911, III, 32. 
» Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Geomelry, 19 1 1 , p. 72. 
^Ihid. 

' The edition of 1862 was used in making comparisons. No exercises and the essay form of demon- 
stration used. 



122 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Plane and Solid Geometry} The former is typical of the older type 
of instruction and the latter of the new. Lists of textbooks do not 
show that Wentworth was used previous to 1880 and Davies was 
still in use as late as 1895. In the period 1880-85 the former was 
used in about one-half and by 1895 in nearly 75 per cent of the 
schools. Some of the other texts belonging to the older type were 
Loomis, Olney, and Ray. These were somewhat modified in 
method of treatment but clearly belong to the older type. Among 
those adopting essentially Wentworth's method of treatment were 
the texts of Wells and Welsh. 

' The edition of 1899 shows the greater contrast in that the original exercises are more extended and 
the figures tend to greater distinctness in outline. The latter developed into the use of photographs in 
later books. Wells's Essenliats 0/ Plane and Solid Geometry, 1898, was very similar to the Wentworlh text. 



CHAPTER X 

ENGLISH 

In no other field have the changes been so radical and important 
as in the field of English. This change is marked in three ways. 
The first thing that challenges attention in a study of the develop- 
ment of English work in the high school is the increase in the 
amount of time devoted to the field.' It will be observed that the 
maximum time increased nearly three years, the minimum more 
than a year, and the mode and average each one year. Next to be 
noticed is the increasing importance of English as evidenced by the 
tendency toward greater uniformity among the schools.^ While 
the schools are far from being uniform in their practice in 1900, a 
comparison of the tables cited above shows a marked tendency 
toward giving Enblish the important place it now occupies. This 
tendency toward uniformity is also shown in another way. In the 
earlier years the classical courses frequently required little or no 
English while requirements as high as three years in this subject 
were made in the other courses. For example, the classical course 
of the Ann Arbor high school (1859) required only English analysis.' 
It is also probable that the same course offered by Jacksonville, 
Illinois (1869), required little English.'' These schools are fairly 
representative of the practice during the earlier years. 

It is also made clear by a study of college entrance requirements 
that the earlier college preparatory courses gave very much less 
attention to English than is the practice at the present time. The 
increase of attention to the subject is also shown by increase in 
requirements. For example, in 1867 the University of Illinois 
required examinations only in orthography, reading, and grammar.^ 
As late as 1873 no English requirement is specified except gram- 
mar.* On the contrary, in 1899-1900^ this same institution re- 
quired composition, rhetoric, and literature for entrance and the 
statement in the catalog specifies that "two years of high-school 

■ Cf. Table XIX. 

> Cf. Tables XI and XVIII. 

' Cf. p. 20. 

< Cf. p. 23. 

' Cf. Catalog, Unkersity of Illinois, 1867, p. 24. 

« Ibid., p. 39. 

' Ibid., pp. 49-50. 

123 



124 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

work with five recitations per week will be necessary for the above 
preparation." Other institutions' show the same meager require- 
ments in the earlier years and a gradual increase in requirements to 
the close of the period. 

The third way in which change took place was in the relative 
emphasis placed upon the different English subjects and in the 
character of subject-matter. The change in emphasis is shown in 
Table X and in more detail in the Appendix, Tables A-H inclusive. 
It is clearly shown in these tables that the relative amount of 
attention given to grammar and rhetoric decreased while that of 
literature increased. The status of composition is not so easily 
determined because it was taught more or less in connection with 
other English subjects. It is evident, however, that the actual 
time given to composition increased. The earlier practice was to 
list it in a footnote of the printed course along with declamation 
and other general exercises.- The later practice of according it a 
regular place is shown by the fact that it was introduced into the 
body of the curriculum' and in some cases offered as an elective 
against one of the traditional subjects.'* 

The changes in subject-matter in this field are important and 
more radical than in most other fields. This is shown by details 
given in the printed courses of study, by college entrance require- 
ments, and most clearly of all by the textbooks used. 

The least change is found in the case of grammar. This was a 
textbook subject and the texts in use reveal the character of the 
subject-matter. A comparative study of these reveals that the 
change which took place was on the whole unimportant. Courses 
of study show that "Analysis," "English Analysis," and "Sentential 
Analysis" were terms in common use up to 1875 and they survived 
even beyond that. These titles fairly represent the character of 
material and suggest the method of treatment in the older gram- 
mars. Welch's text* consists of definitions, rules, and abundant 
material for analysis and parsing. He says in the preface: 

A systematic analysis of the English sentence should hold a prominent rank, 
merely as a means of mental development. 

I Cf. Cctcilns, of Indiana University, University of Iowa, Cornell College, and De Pauw University 
entrance requirements. 

' Cf. pp. 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 28, 31. 

!Cf. pp. 30, 31,34,40. 

< Cf. pp. 30, 40. 

6 Welch, A. S., Analysis aj the English Sentence, Designed Jot Advanced Classes in EnslisliGrammar, 
1862. 



ENGLISH 125 

Greene's Gravimar^ was very similar both in subject-matter 
and method of treatment to the text cited above. Clark's Normal 
Grammar'^ was not essentially different from these other books. 
A system of diagrams was used but this did not change the character 
of the work. It simply constituted a device probably more or less 
useful in carrying on the usual type of formal work in analysis and 
parsing. Except for the use of the diagram in Clark's book no 
written work is anywhere indicated and the emphases employed 
in all three books suggest nothing but memorizing definitions and 
rules and oral exercises in analysis and parsing. 

Swinton's book^ does not differ essentially from the other texts 
then in use except in the emphasis upon composition. While the 
author in the preface makes claim that his treatment is not formal, 
the claim is not justified by the book itself. Mental discipline is 
stated in the preface as one of the aims in teaching grammar as 
will be shown by the following: 

The author would state in a single sentence that his aim has been to set 
forth, in the light of the latest scholarship, the etymology and syntax of the 
English language and to make this a logical, systematic, and well-ordered prospec- 
tus of this great subject with a view to both individual development and wit- 
sharpening and to the attainment of a fair mastery of the art of speaking and 
writing our language. 

There is bound with this volume a School Manual of Composition 
by the same author. This was also published separately. It is 
evident that the author places more emphasis than was usual upon 
written composition as a means of securing drill in grammatical 
forms. This, however, has to do with method in teaching and 
not with change in the subject-matter itself. 

Reed and Kellogg's texf* was one of the most widely used books 
after 1890 as shown by published lists of textbooks. The authors 
state three aims for the study of a sentence: (1) to give a knowledge 
of the laws of discourse; (2) to aid in giving ability to translate 
foreign language; (3) to provide mental discipline. They assert in 
this connection that the sentence is made the basis of study not 
from the standpoint of its analysis, but its meaning. Extensive 

' Grkene, Samuel S., .4 Grammar of lite English Language Adapted to the Use oj Schools and Acade- 
mies, 1860. 

^ Claek, Stephen W., The Normal Grammar Analytic and Snyihetic: Illustrated by Diagrams, 1870. 

' SwiNTON, WiLLlAil, A General Etymology atul Syntax of the English Language: A Progressive Gram- 
mar of the English Language, 1872. 

* Reed and Kellogg, Higher Lessons in English — A Work on English Grammar and Composition: 
2n which the Stiuly of the Science of tlie Language is made Tributary to the Art of Expression. 1877, 1885, 1896. 



126 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

use is made of the diagram as a means of analysis and this seems 
to have resulted in a continuation of the practice of emphasizing 
formal analysis and parsing. This conclusion is justified by the 
contents and method of treatment and is supported by a statement 
in the preface of the 1896 edition as follows: 

We confess, to some surprise, that so little of what was thought good in matter 
and method years ago has been seriously aflfected by criticism. 

One reason, no doubt, why criticism did so little to secure reform 
was that it was confined quite exclusively to statements in the pref- 
aces and found no constructive expressions in the texts themselves, 
either with regard to contents or method of treatment. A knowl- 
edge of grammar as an end in itself and mental discipline, in spite of 
all statements to the contrary, continued to constitute the chief 
aims in the teaching of grammar, so far as the texts themselves 
concerned, to the end of the century. These ideas had become 
so fixed that composition and later literature were drafted more or 
less into service to accomplish these aims. 

Changes of considerable importance took place in rhetoric. 
The earlier texts show the relations of this subject to logic, and 
subject-matter and method of treatment are both largely deter- 
mined from this point of view. Whateley's Elements of Rhetorical 
Composition^ is typical of this class of texts. The author claims 
to have divorced the subject from logic but neither the contents 
of the book nor the method of treatment justify the claim. The 
chapter titles are as follows: "Of Propositions," "Of Arguments," 
"Of Fiction," "Persuasion," "Perspicuity," "Energy," "Elegance," 
"Elocution." No reference is made to composition, grammatical 
rules, or forms of speech except in the section devoted to energy. 
As a matter of fact, it is a treatise on argumentation. Some of the 
subtopics treated are as follows: presumption pertaining to proof, 
presumption in favor of existing institutions, presumption of 
innocence, arguments of cause and effect, how to prepare a sermon, 
spurious oratory. 

Another text- of the older type by Alexander Bain shows that 
the logical viewpoint still prevailed although it is more modern 
both as to content and method of treatment. More attention is 
given to rhetorical forms and composition than is found in Whate- 

' Whateley, Richard, An Analysis of ifte Laws of Moral Evidence of Persuasion wiilt Rules for 
Argumentation, Delivery and Composition. 1853. 

2 Bain, Alexander, English Composition and Rhetoric, 1866. 



ENGLISH 127 

ley's book. The text is divided into two parts. Part I, "Composi- 
tion In General," treats of figures of speech, arrangement of words, 
quality of style, sentences, paragraphing, etc. Part II, "Kinds of 
Composition," is devoted to narrative, exposition, persuasion, and 
poetry. This part shows the influence of the logical point of view 
both in subject-matter and method of treatment. 

Haven's Rhetoric^ is another example of the older texts, but 
suggests very clearly the tendency to emphasize grammatical and 
rhetorical rather than logical forms. In the preface the author 
says: 

I would respectfully suggest to teachers that students of rhetoric should 
always combine practice with study and should always be required to produce 
either original or selected examples of every form of speech and of every kind of 
composition and every style described. Once a week the class may present in 
writing specimens or illustrations of what has been studied during the week. 
The exercises suggested in Part IV, "Invention" should all be fairly wrought out 
after the previous parts have been studied. In this way the science and the art 
are so welded together in the memory' as to be of permanent value. 

The book is divided into five parts: Part I, "Words." (Empha- 
sis is placed upon the importance of words and direction is given for 
securing a broader and more useful vocabulary.) Part II, "Figures 
of Speech"; Part III, "Style"; Part IV, "Invention"; Part V, 
"Elocution." More than one hundred pages are devoted to figures 
of speech and about an equal number to composition and style. 
The following is a good summary of the character of instruction 
in rhetoric during at least the first half of the period covered by this 
study: 

Up to about 1880 the work done in rhetoric was of the most formal and 
artificial sort and was not often accompanied by practical exercises or composi- 
tions.- 

About this time two texts^ were published which mark a beginning 
at least of a transition to the second period in the development in 
the character of subject-matter. This period has been charac- 
terized as follows: 

Then came a change in our text books. From about 1885 to 1895, one of 
the most difficult problems relating to secondary work in English was that of the 
part played in systematic rhetoric by the correction of "bad" English; i.e., in 
grammatical and idiomatic expressions. At that time text books most in use 

> Copyright, 1869. 

> Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T. ani Scorr. F. N., Teachin; of EnslisH Composition, 1903, p. 218. 
' Hill, Adam S., Elements of Rhetoric ami Composition, 1878. 



128 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

concerned themselves largely with exercises of this kind and many colleges made 
a point of including such texts in their entrance requirements.' 

The texts above referred to do not, however, represent in any 
marked way the change of point of view indicated in the quotation, 
but show the shift of attention from logical to rhetorical forms. 
A. S. Hill's text has a considerable leaning still to the older type of 
subject-matter and organization as shown by the emphasis upon 
"argumentative composition." The text by D. J. Hill emphasizes 
literary forms to a greater extent and devotes about fifty pages to 
special forms of composition such as letters, orations, and the like. 
At the close of the book another fifty pages is given to exercises in 
style and in the use of punctuation marks and capitals. 

Another text by Kellogg^ which was widely used shows some- 
what more clearly the type of work referred to in the quotation 
characterizing the work from 1885 to 1895. The work is divided 
into three parts as follows: "Invention," "Qualities of Style," and 
"Productions." Part I is devoted to the structure of sentences 
and the material is very similar to that found in Reed and Kellogg's 
Higher Lessons in English. Part H consists in considerable detail 
in a formal discussion of rhetorical principles. Illustrative material 
is usually in the form of single sentences indicating the emphasis 
upon sentence structure and the use of words. Considerable 
attention is devoted to figures of speech and a knowledge of these 
is evidently regarded as more important than practice in their 
proper uses. Part III, devoted to production, occupies about one 
hundred pages, illustrating the various forms of composition. Of 
these one hundred pages, however, more than sixty are devoted to 
poetry and abundant material is used in illustrating its different 
kinds. Much emphasis is placed upon the classification of poetry 
under appropriate headings. 

The last three books cited represent the type of material used 
in many of the schools to the close of the century. The relation of 
rhetoric to composition of a formal sort is emphasized. In fact 
one of the chief aims apparently of the latter was to provide drill 
in rhetorical forms. This relationship will be discussed later in 
more detail. 

Textbooks which came into use just at the close of the period 
indicate the modifications which then took place in character of 

' Hill, David J., Principles oj Rhetoric and Their Application, 1878, 1884. 

2 Kellogg, Brainard, A Text-Book on Rhetoric, Supplementing and Dei-eloping All the Senses with 
Exhaustive Practice in Cornposition. 1892. (This text follows closely the plan of the edition of 1880.) 



ENGLISH 129 

subject-matter and organization. One of these^ states the point 
of view thus in the preface: 

That rhetoric in the high school should be regarded simply as a "course" to 
be pursued and passed and put out of remembrance as quickly as possible is not 
good either for rhetoric or for composition. In this book, as the name signifies, 
no such apartness has been recognized. The rhetoric which is found in this book 
is meant to be the theory of the pupils' practices, nothing more — the explicit 
statement of principles which are implicit in all successful elementary com- 
position. 

The book as a matter of fact deals with the principles and practices 
of composition and as the authors state, "rhetoric is meant to be 
the theory of the pupils' practice." Chapter and section titles 
indicate further this point of view: "External Forms of the Para- 
graph," "Paragraph Structure," "What to Say," "How to Say It," 
"In What Order to Say It," "How Much to Say," "What Not to 
Say." Figures of speech receive only scant attention in six pages 
of the index, and poetry but thirteen pages. When one compares 
this text with Kellogg's book, for example, the older viewpoint, 
with its emphasis upon the formal principles of rhetoric and the 
use of composition chiefly as a means of drill in learning these, 
stands out in clear contrast. And after 1885 this viewpoint con- 
trolled chiefly in school practice even beyond the close of the 
century. 

Literature is the subject in which the most important changes 
took place from the standpoints both of amount and character of 
subject-matter. Table X shows this in terms of percentage and 
Tables A-H, inclusive, in detail so far as the increase in time 
devoted to the subject is concerned. It is shown by Table A that 
at least five of the schools offered no work in literature. A refer- 
ence to the table also shows that, with one exception, those schools 
which offered the subject placed the emphasis upon other English 
subjects. Table H, on the contrary, shows the prominent place 
given to literature and indicates the increasing importance of the 
subject. 

In a discussion of the character of the subject-matter used in 
instruction it should be said at the outset that the term "literature" 
means largely English literature. American literature has received 
comparatively little attention. For example, in 1865, American 
literature was not offered in a single one of the schools included in 

» Scon; Feed Newton, and DennYi Joseph Velhees, Rhclork, Designed for Use in the Secondary 
Schools, 1897. 



130 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Table A. This does not quite represent the facts in the case 
since some of these schools offered reading and the textbooks con- 
tained a few selections from American authors. But the emphasis 
even here was overwhelmingly upon the work of English writers. 
As time went on more attention was devoted to American literature, 
but even at the close of the period, Table H shows the decided 
emphasis still remaining upon English literature. College entrance 
requirements also show this. For example, the University of 
Illinois^ in 1896 required nine classics to be read in high school, 
six of which were English and three American. 

In considering the content of the material used in instruction, 
three stages in development are evident. It is not possible to say 
definitely when one of these stages ended and another began since 
there was considerable overlapping. But from the standpoint of 
emphasis, at least, there were three rather well-marked stages in 
the teaching of literature. 

The first stage was marked by emphasis upon Select Readings. 
These consisted of short selections from a relatively large number of 
authors. Mention of required Select Readings is found in the 
footnotes of printed courses of study. Reading was regularly 
taught as shown by the details of the courses.^ Lists of textbooks 
contain titles of texts in reading and this shows that the subject 
was taught as a regular subject. The books themselves show the 
character of the subject-matter used.' Compendiums of literature 
are also included in lists of textbooks, and they contain material 
of the same general character as found in the readers.* 

The work in reading had a twofold purpose — that of training in 
oral reading and declamation and that of acquainting the student 
with good literature. The emphasis upon oral reading is shown 
by the character of the material in the texts, and the almost uni- 
versal practice of requiring declamation is revealed by the footnotes 
to the printed courses of study. ^ 

Emphasis upon the mechanics of reading is shown by a study 
of the contents of McGuffy's Sixth Reader. About sixty pages are 

* Calahi;, University oj Illinois, 1896. ~ Entrance requirements. 
' Cf. Appendix, Tables A, B, and C. i 

' McGuffy's Fijtk and Sixth Readers; The Inlependent Fijth and Sixth Readers; Swinton's Sixth 
Reader; Porter's Exercises in Rhetorical Readings; Standard Fijth Reader are examples. 

* Cleveland, Compendium oJ English Literature, 1848, 1874, is an example. 
» Cf. pp. 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. 



ENGLISH 131 

devoted to such topics as articulation, inflection, accent, emphasis, 
reading verse, voice, and gesture. Short selections are furnished in 
connection with definitions and rules to provide practice in oral 
reading and speaking. For example, to illustrate the use of the 
voice in pitch and compass the following examples are given: 
high pitch — "Gentlemen may cry 'Peace! Peace!' but there is no 
peace." The following is given as an example of medium pitch: 

Under the spreading chestnut tree 
The village smithy stands. 
The smith a mighty man is he 
With large and sinewy hands 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 
Are strong as iron bands. 

Examples are also given of high pitch, slow movement, and so on. 
Four pages are devoted to instruction in the use of gestures. This 
book is typical in this respect of the other readers in use. The 
Student's Reader, for example, devotes fifteen pages to general 
principles of oral reading, with force, pitch, emphasis, inflection, 
and the 1 ke, and the Independent Fifth Reader devotes attention 
to similar topics. 

The emphasis upon declamatory work, as has been pointed out, 
is shown by reference to the courses of study. It is also clear that 
the selections yielded themselves readily to memorizing and oral 
delivery, if, indeed, many of them were not selected with that 
specific end in view. 

Turning now to the character of the selections from a literary 
point of view, we find an attempt to furnish a wide range of what 
was considered to be good literature. In the preface of the Stu- 
dent's Reader the author says: 

In this book the attempt has been made to bring together as much and as 
great a variety of choice literature as a book of this sort can contain. Great 
care has been taken to secure pieces of positive merit in all respects, and to admit 
only such. This book is not intended as a treatise on English literature, but is 
intended to furnish the higher classes in our schools with a class of literature that 
is at once instructive, interesting, and good taste. 

The emphasis upon reading is indicated by the following: 

It is called the Student's Reader from the desire to impress the idea that the 
Reading Lesson ought to be studied. 

This book contains 419 pages, of which 325 are given to reading 
material. An idea of the average length of these selections is 
indicated by the fact that the 325 pages contain 113 selections, of 



132 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

less than three pages each. The character of the selections can be 
judged by the titles, some of which are the following: "Expulsion of 
the Acadians," "The Man Without a Country," "The Universal 
Prayer," "Washington," "The Bridge of Sighs," "Scene from 
Henry IV," "Lay of the Last Minstrel," "The Pied Piper of Ham- 
lin," "Faithless Sally Brown," "Contest with a Cannon," "The 
Tempted Scholar," Cicero's "Impeachment," "Thanatopsis," 
"Lycidas," "L'Allegro," "Alexander's Feast," "Intimations of 
Immortality." 

McGuffy's Sixth Reader devoted 400 pages to 150 selections 
representing more than 100 authors. The National Speaker, while 
intended primarily to furnish material for declamatory work, con- 
tains material of the same general character as contained in the 
two texts cited above. This book devotes 200 pages to 109 selec- 
tions. One hundred and eight pages are given to 15 "dialogues, 
familiar and dramatic." The title of another of these books is 
Literary Reader.^ This book has about 400 pages containing 179 
selections and representing 68 authors. The preface contains the 
following statement: 

So far as gradation is concerned, this book is intended to fill the place of the 
Sixth Reader. In the original catalogue of the common schools, literature holds 
practically but a homely place, but public sentiment has fortunately changed 
touching this matter within a few years; in the hope of further establishing it in 
its true place in the public schools, this book has been prepared. 

The author claims the book to be uncommon in two respects: 
(1) in the introduction of a liberal representation of American 
literature; and (2) because of the use of the writings of scientists. 
Referring to the latter he says: 

This feature of the work seems to make a not undue acknowledgment of 
the great love of science in these times and it is also a welcome addition to thev 
treasures of literature. 

It seems that he is justified in the claim made for the book in both 
particulars. Other compilers gave little attention to American 
literature and practically none to scientific writings. 

As has been said, no approximate date can be given when the 
emphasis shifted from the literature itself to its history. From the 
first, more or less attention was given to the biography of authors, 
and this for the most part constituted the so-called history of litera- 

' Cathart, George R., Literary Reader: Typical Selections from Some of t lie Best British and Ameri- 
can Authors from Shakespeare to the Present Time, 1875. 



ENGLISH 133 

ture. Spaulding's book' is an exception to this rule, and while lists 
of textbooks show that it was used, its use was not general. The 
introductory chapter covers twelve pages devoted to a brief dis- 
cussion of the four periods of English history as follows: Roman 
period to 449, Anglo-Saxon period to 1069, Middle ages to 1509, 
Modern times to 1852. The plan of the book divides the history 
of English literature into these four periods and representative 
authors, of each period were selected. For example, for the period 
ending 1509, he gives short selections to illustrate the various types 
of literature. No biographies are given except brief statements in 
footnotes. The book is devoted chiefly to a discussion of the events 
of the period and to brief selections of literature which indicate the 
spirit of the times. The selections chosen are largely those which 
are directed against some evil practice. The book undertakes to 
interpret the social and political life of each period of English 
history. 

Another type of texts, the one in more common use, as shown 
by published lists of textbooks, emphasized the biography of 
authors. Some of the readers already cited contained short biog- 
raphies and later books, purporting to be histories of literature, 
laid such stress upon biography that comparatively little attention 
was given to writings of the authors. Trimble's Handbook of Eng- 
lish Literature is an example. In this book more space is devoted 
to personal biography than to literature. 

In referring to the barrenness of the work both in rhetoric and 
literature, the superintendent of the Chicago schools in his report 
says: 

The study of rhetoric seems comparatively futile, save in the knowledge 
acquired of a few terms, and the time devoted to English Literature is often 
expended on the history of unimportant and forgotten authorities with little 
appreciation or knowledge of real literature.- 

An example of the emphasis placed upon the historical aspect 
of the subject and the persistence of this type of subject-matter is 
shown in Halleck's English Literature} This book contains very 
meager quotations from the numerous authors in explanation of the 
types and character of literature produced in the various periods. 
The biographies of more than one hundred authors are given and a 

> Spaulding, William, The Bhiory of English Literature with au Outline of the Origin and Growth 
of English Literature, 1868. 

2 Annual Report of Board of Education, 1883, p. 62. 

' Halleck, Reuben Post, History of English Literature, 1900. 



134 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

critical analysis made of their writings with, as said before, only 
meager quotations from the literature. In an appendix is given a 
"supplementary list of minor authors and their chief works." 
More than two hundred names are given with dates of birth and 
death of each and the titles of literary productions. 

The third stage is marked by an emphasis upon "classics." 
This means that emphasis was shifted from the writer to his writings 
and that wholes were substituted for fragments of literary produc- 
tions. No date can be fixed for the beginning of this movement, 
but about 1885 marks the time when this sort of material came 
into use and by 1890 its use was quite general. The older kinds 
of material, however, persisted, particularly the historical type, 
until the close of the century. 

College catalogs in their entrance requirements and the printed 
courses of study of the high schools show clearly the growth in 
importance of this class of material after the date given above. 
The University of Illinois^ did not make any entrance requirement 
in literature as late as 1892, but gave notice that the following re- 
quirements must be met in 1893: 

In 1893 longer essays will be required (except from these offering Greek) 
upon subjects drawn from the following works: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, 
Scott's Marmion, Webster's First Bunker Hill Oration, Goldsmith's Deserted 
Village, Irving's The Sketch Book, or one year's work in French or German will be 
accepted instead of the English Literature described. 

The catalog for 1892-93 contains the same list. For 1894 the 
following list was required : Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, 
Scott's Lady of the Lake, Emerson's American Scholar, Longfellow's 
Evangeline, Macaulay's Second Essay on the Earl of Chatham. This 
statement follows the list: "Real equivalents for any of these 
works will be accepted." It is clear that, up to this time, these 
masterpieces were used only as a basis for composition work. The 
catalog^ for 1895-96 makes specific requirements as follows; 

Each candidate is expected to have read certain assigned masterpieces and 
will be subjected to such an examination as will determine whether he has done so. 

It will be observed that no mention is made of requiring an essay' 
and an examination is substituted therefore. The requirements 
in English literature are as follows and change from year to year: 

1 Cf. Catalog, University of Illinois, 1892. Entrance requirements. 

^The catalog specifies that candidates will be required to write an essay "correct as to punctuation, 
etc." but does not indicate the nature of the content. 

' Cf. Catalog, University of Illinois, 1895-96. Entrance requirements. 



ENGLISH 135 

1896, Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Defoe's History 
of the Plague in London, Irving's Tales of a Traveler, Scott's Wood- 
stock, Macaulay's Essay on Milton, Longfellow's Evangeline, and 
George Eliot's Silas Marner; 1897, Shakespeare's As You Like It, 
Defoe's History of the Plague in London, Irving's Tales of a Traveller, 
Hawthorne's Twice-Told Tales, hongieWo'w's Evangeline, and George 
Eliot's Silas Marner; 1898, Milton's Paradise Lost (Books I and II), 
Pope's Iliad (Books I and XXII), "The Sir Roger de Coverley 
Papers" in the Spectator, Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield, 
Coleridge's Ancient Mariner, Southey's Life of Nelson, Carlyle's 
Essay on Burns, Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal, Hawthorne's 
House of the Seven Gables. 

It will be seen that the lists for 1896 and 1897 are identical 
except as follows: As You Like It is substituted for A Midsummer 
Night's Dream and Twice-Told Tales for Woodstock and Essay on 
Milton. The list for 1898 requires nine selections as against six 
for 1897 and seven for 1896. Other institutions made similar 
although not identical requirements. DePauw University made 
the following announcement in the catalog for 1893-94:' 

In 1894 and thereafter an additional- semester's work will be required in 
CoTiposition and Rhetoric with written exercises in capitalization, punctuation, 
paragraph, and sentence structure. The course in literature will include the 
following masterpieces with the writing of papers and essays on subjects drawn 
from them as a basis of criticism: Scott's Marmion, Longfellow's The Courtship 
of Miles Slandisli, Irving's The Sketch Book, Dickens' David Copperfield, Defoe's 
History of the Plague in London, Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, George Eliot's 
Silas Marner, and Webster's Bunker Hill Oration, or equivalent.^ 

The University of Indiana^ made requirements similar to those of 
Illinois. 

To what extent the entrance requirements in English were 
influenced by what was actually being taught in the high schools 
is not easily determined. It is entirely clear that some high 
schools were offering work in literature consisting of material 
very similar to the entrance requirements above cited several 
years before the higher institutions adopted the requirements. 
It is not improbable, therefore, that the agreement on the part of 
the higher institutions in the general plan was determined somewhat 

' Requirement in composition is as follows: The candidate will be required to write two biographies 
of about one hundred and fifty words each as a test of his ability to use the English langu.age. 
' Cf. Catalog, DePauw University, 1893-94, Entrance requirements. 
' Three semesters' work in English required for entrance in the previous catalog. 
* Cf. Catalog, University oj Indiana, 1895-96. Entrance requirements. 



136 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

by what the high schools were already doing. On the other hand, 
the lack of uniformity in the details of entrance requirements 
shows that the work was not standardized by the high schools and 
that the higher institutions had not yet worked out uniform 
requirements. 

When we turn to the high schools for information concerning the 
work in literature, we find that the practice of substituting classics 
more generally for short selections antedates the requirements of 
higher institutions in this regard. The courses of study^ of Mil- 
waukee, Wisconsin, as early as 1877 included English Classics. 
These are, however, not specified and no information is given 
concerning their number or character. An outline of the work in 
English in the Laporte, Indiana, high school (1883), contains the 
ollowing: 

Extracts from Irving, Hawthorne, Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, 
Thoreau, Emerson, Bryant, Poe, Scott, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Dickens, 
Thackeray, Ruskin, Macaulay, and Carlyle. Preparation of short biographical 
sketches of these and other recent writers. Classification of authors and works. 

Collections of weighty thoughts and beautiful sayings Critical reading 

of one of Shakespeare's plays and of some extracts from Bacon, Milton, Addison, 
Samuel Johnson, Hume or Gibbon, and Herbert Spencer. A general survey of 
English literature in short lectures.^ 

It will be observed that with the exception of one play from Shake- 
speare the work consists of extracts and the emphasis upon biog- 
raphy still holds. 

The printed courses of study, however, for the period 1886-90 
show conclusively the tendency to substitute classics for extracts. 
The following statement is found in the school report of Lawrence, 
Kansas, under the heading English Classics: 

The following course of supplementary reading is outlined for the pupils of 
the high school, with a desire to acquaint them with standard productions and to 
implant in their minds a love for choice literature. Junior class: Lady of the 
Lake, Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Miles Standish, Virgil's Aeneid (2 books), Macbeth; 
Middle class: Snowbound, Rasselas, Julius Caesar, Evangeline, Bacon's Essays; 
Senior class: Vision of Sir Launfal, Merchant of Venice, Paradise Lost (2 books).' 

Kankakee, Illinois, high school provided the following list in 
1890: 

First year: Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Thanalopsis, Deserted Village, Gray's 
Elegy, Lady of the Lake, Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, Merchant of Venice; 

* Annual Report of the School Board, 1877, p. Ixxvii. 

' Calendar of the Laporte Public Schools for 1883-84, pp. 18-19. 

' Annual Report oj Board of Education, 1887, p. 53. 



ENGLISH 137 

Second year: Bunker Hill Oration, The Sketch Book, Ancient Mariner, Tales from 
Shakespeare, Macaulay's Warren Hastings, Dickens' Christmas Carol, Julius 
Caesar; Third year: "Sir Roger de Coverley," Lycidas, As You Like It, Paradise 
Lost (Book I), Tennyson's Two Voices, Round About Papers, Henry VIII ; Fourth 
year: In Memoriam, The Tempest, Modern Painters, Macbeth, Chaucer's The 
Life Squire's Tale, Hamlet.^ 

Other schools^ during this period offered similar lists. Some of 
these are extensive, others very meager. The Grand Rapids list 
contains thirty-three titles while that of Richmond, Indiana, pre- 
sents but two, and these are not specified — being simply designated 
as "two of Shakespeare's plays." The ten years following 1890 
show a rapid development in this kind of work. From this time 
on, the older type of literature declined in importance and a list 
of classics became a part of the English work. There was lack of 
uniformity both in the number and character of the classics read 
but this kind of material had come into general use. College 
entrance requirements no doubt exerted an influence in the direction 
of securing some degree of uniformity, but even these lacked uni- 
formity practically until the close of the century. 

The following will show the relative importance of some of the 
masterpieces from the standpoint of frequency of occurrence in the 
lists of the various schools.' The ranking in the order named of 
the ten highest is as follows: 

1. Merchant of Venice 6. Macbeth 

2. Julius Caesar 7. Lady of the Lake 

3. Bunker Hill Oration 8. Hamlet 

4. The Sketch Book 9. Deserted Village 
4. Evangeline 10. Gray's Elegy 

4. Vision of Sir Launfal 10. Thanatopsis 

5. Snowbound 10. As You Like It 

They appear in the reading lists of more than 25 per cent of the 
schools and the one ranking first being found in nearly 70 per cent 
of the lists. 

It will be seen that Shakespeare's writings constitute five out of 
the fourteen holding the first, second, sixth, eighth, and tenth ranks, 
and of the fourteen listed, eight are English and six American. 

A second list is given below. These titles were included in the 
reading lists of not more than 25 per cent of the schools and the 

1 A nmuU Report of Ihe Public Schools, 1890, p. 38. 

2 Geneseo, Illinois, Belvidere, Illinois, Evansville, Indiana, Fairburj', Nebraska, Grand Rapids, 
Michigan, Richmond, Indiana, as shown by printed courses of study. 

' The data are furnished by the printed courses of study for the periods 1886-90, 1891-95, and 1896- 
1900. Cf. Appendix, Tables F, G, and H. 



138 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



range is as low as 10 per cent in some cases, 
in the order of frequency. 



The arrangement is 



1. 


Miles Standish 


5. 


Tales of the Whie Hills 


2. 


II Penseroso 


5. 


Lays of Ancient Rome 


2. 


Paradise Lost 


S. 


A Midsummer Night's Dream 


3. 


L' Allegro 


5. 


Vicar of Wakefield 


3. 


Lycidas 


5. 


Iliad 


4. 


Ivanhoe 


6. 


Henry VIII 


4. 


"Sir Roger de Coverley Pa- 


6. 


Among the Hills 




pers" from the Spectator 


6. 


Cotter's Saturday Night 


4. 


David Copperfield 


6. 


Chambered Nautilus 


4. 


Silas Marner 


6. 


Comus 


5. 


In Memoriam 


6. 


Bryant's Favorite Poems 


5. 


Enoch Arden 


6. 


The Princess 


5. 


Behavior 


6. 


Saul 


5. 


Marmion 


6. 


King Lear 



A third list contains those titles that are found in less than 10 
per cent of the reading lists. Many of these are not found except 
in the list of a single school. The purpose of this list is to show the 
lack of uniformity and the wide range of material used. No 
attempt is made to arrange the titles in order of frequency. 

Idyls of the King 
Shakespeare's EngUsh Histori- 
cal Plays 
The Rape of the Lock 
Middlemarch 



Prisoner of Chillon 

Rasselas 

Last of the Mohicans 

Warren Hastings 

Christinas Carol 

The Tempest 

Culture 

Books and Libraries 

Autocrat of the Breakfast-Tahle 

Gettysburg Speech 

Sesame and Lilies 

Macaulay's Addison 

Childe Harold 

The Faerie Queene 

Odyssey (2 books) 

Flight of the Tartars 

Carlyle's Essay on Burns 

Aeneid 

Plutarch's Lives 

Hiawatha 

Mosses from an Old Manse 

Adam Bede 

Selections from the Spectator 

Pickwick Papers 



The Task 
Essays of Elia 
The Excursion 
Venice Preserved 
English Traits 
Ancient Mariner 
Scenes from Clerical Life 
Essay on Man 
Vanity Fair 
Knight's Tale 
Alexander's Feast 
The Spanish Student 
Ladder of St. Augustine 
The Alhamhra 
House of Seven Cables 
Representative Men 
Essays on Character 
Circles 
Gifts 



ENGLISH 



139 



Views Afoo! 

Bigelow Papers 

The Cathedral 

A Few Thoughts for Young Men 

Entering Life 
A Few Thoughts on the Powers 

and Duties of a Woman 
Lotus Eaters 
Rip Van Winkle 
To a Water Fowl 
Poor Richard's Almanac 
Letters of Samuel Mather 
Letters to Reverend Lathrop 
Boston Letters to Benjamin Webb 
The Plowman 
The Iron Gate 
The Great Stone Face 
My Visit to Niagara 
The Ship Builders 
The Worship of Nature 
The Pilgrim Fathers 
Essays on Lincoln 
Boston Hymn 
The Cricket on the Hearth 
The Traveler 
To a Mouse 
To a Mouyitain 
For A ' That 
Burke's Speeches 
Faust 

Samson Agonistes 
The Divine Comedy 
Johnson's Lives of the Poets 
Uncle Tom's Cabin 
Ben Hur 
Bitter Sweet 
Selections from Katrine 
Timothy Titcomb's Letters 
Bacon's Essays 
Tales from Shakespeare 
Two Voices 
Round About Papers 
Modern Painters 
The Squire's Tale 
Romola 

Essay on Lord Bacon 
Tom Brown 
The Newcomes 



Wild Apples 

Abraham Lincoln (Lowell) 

Character of Washington 

The Hunt of the Deer 

Siiccession of Forest Fires 

Selected Essays (Emerson) 

A donais 

Reply to Hayne 

The Whit Murder Trial 

Eulogy on Garfield 

Legends of New England 

The School Boy 

Frederic the Great 

Compensation 

Books 

Songs of the Cavalier 

Duke of Wellington 

Henry VI 

Richard II 

Works of Patrick Henry 

Tale of Two Cities 

Fifteen Decisive Battles 

Oliver Twist 

Tales of a Traveler 

Woodstock 

Essay on Milton 

History of the London Plague 

Twice Told Tales 

Speech on Conciliation 

Life of Samuel Johnson 

Sohrab and Rustum 

The Closing Scene 

The Fire Worshippers 

Life and Death of Jason 

The Pleasures of Hope 

Elaine 

Lady of Lyons 

Dream of Fair Women 

Adams and Jefferson 

Othello 

Henry VI 

Conduct of Life 

Chaucer's Prologue 

Alcestes 

Intimations of Immortality 

Les Miserable s 

Buddha 

Pom pel 



140 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Hypatia 

The Voyage 

Westminster Abbey 

Holmes' Favorite Poems 

My Hunt after the Captain 

Lowell's Favorite Poems 

Burns' Seleet Poems 

Fable for Critics 

Palamon and Arcite 

Macaulay's Milton 

Reply to Hayne 

Pope's Essay on Macanlay 

Sella 

Selections from Ruskin 

Selected Poems of Wordsworth 

The Coming of Arthur 

Guinivere 

The Passing of Arthur 

Essay on Johnson 

Heroes and Hero Worship 

Emerson's Social Aitns 

Selections from Browning 

Legend of Sleepy Hollow 

Death of the Flowers 



True Stories of England 

The Atomic Theory 

Conservation of Energy 

The Blind Preacher 

Oratory and Oratory 

Old Mortality 

Battle of Blenheim 

Marcella 

Social and Present Day Problems 

Sketch of Creation 

Homes Without Hands 

Prince of India 

Essay on Character 

Geraint and Enid 

History of Our Own Times 

Forms of Water 

Clincote and Time 

The Atmosphere 

Robert of Sicily 

The Arrow and the Song 

The Over Soul 

Plain Folks 

Prince of the House of David 



Approximately two hundred titles are contained in the above list. 
They represent a wide range of themes and for the most part they 
indicate the fragmentary character of the material typical of the 
periods preceding 1885. Schools differed greatly in respect to this 
kind of subject-matter. Some offered a wide range of it and others 
none at all as shown by the published courses of study. It is 
evident, however, that it occupied an important place in English 
work and its prevalence continued to the close of the century. 

Two practices prevailed in the use of classics. One was that 
of securing a wide range of reading, and the other placed the empha- 
sis upon a critical study of a few masterpieces. Higher institutions 
after about 1895 began to publish two lists of requirements, one 
for "minute and critical study," and another for "general reading 
and composition work." In 1895 Indiana LJniversity published 
two such lists as a part of the entrance requirements in English. 
The language used raises a doubt concerning whether the work was 
actually required for entrance or merely suggested as desirable. 
However, it may have been that the lists were as follows: "For 
minute and critical study" — Merchant of Venice, L'Allegro, II 
Penseroso, Comus, Lycidas, and Maculay's Essay on Milton; "for 



ENGLISH 141 

general reading and composition work" — Twelfth Night, Sketch 
Book, Scott's Abbot, Bunker Hill Oration, Evangeline, and Macau- 
lay's Essay on Milton.^ 

The University of Illinois made similar requirements or sugges- 
tions in 1896. The list "for critical study" was the same as that of 
Indiana except for Macaulay's Essay on Addison. The list for 
"general reading and composition work" contained only Evaftgeline 
and Macaulay's Essay on Milton. The others were as follows: 
Midsnmmer Night's Dream, The History of the Plague in London, 
Tales of a Traveler, Woodstock, and Silas Marner.- 

Some of the high schools provide two lists, making in a general 
way the same distinction as indicated above. In 1900, Emporia, 
Kansas,' published two such lists — one designated to be studied in 
class, the other at home. Lawrence, Kansas (1891), designates one 
classic to be read critically in class and three to be read outside of 
school, "the latter to be tested by essays on same."'' In 1893 the 
part of the report devoted to English contains the following state- 
ment: 

To familiarize the pupils with the treasures of English literature and to 
develop thought power, they are given for outside work a list of books on various 
lines of thought, which are required to be read carefully. Reports are frequently 
made and questions answered concerning meaning, etc., of authors.' 

The foregoing represents the character of the work done in a 
considerable number of the high schools. It is evident, however, 
that a wide range of reading was neither sought nor secured in 
many of the schools. In the first place, the lists were meager and 
comparatively little time was devoted to literature. For example 
the Belvidere, Illinois, list for 1880 contains but six titles as follows: 
Sketch Book, Lady of the Lake, Merchant of Venice, Thanatopsis, 
Bunker Hill Oration, and Vision of Sir Launfal.^ The point of 
view is also clearly indicated thus: 

These works are to be studied critically. Unusual expressions, figures of 
speech, interesting words are all to receive careful attention. 

Evansville, Indiana, furnishes another example of emphasis upon 
the critical type of work. The list is somewhat more extended 

* Cf. Calalog, Uttiversily oj Indiana, 1894-95. Entrance requirements. 
' Cf. Catalog, University nf Illinois, 1895-96. Entrance requirements. 
= Cf. Annual Report of Boird of Education, 1900. pp. 97-98. 

' Animal Report Board oJ Education, 1890-91, p. .501. 
6 Annual Report Board oJ Education. 1893, p. 131. 

• Cf. Course of Study and Regulations of lite Public Schools, 1889-90, p. 80. 



142 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

than that of Belvidere, but the selections are all of the literary type 
in the narrow sense. The statement following the list indicates the 
point of view: 

To be critically read in class with attention given to the formation of words, 
construction of sentences, expressions of thought, characteristics of style, and 
figures of rhetoric used by the author.' 

In summary it may be said that the emphasis upon classics 
dates from about 1885. The list of fourteen titles shows the ones 
which were in most common use, and the second list indicates 
approximately thirty titles of those used in from 10 to 25 per cent 
of the schools. The third list shows the lack of uniformity because 
none of these were taught in 10 per cent of the schools and many of 
them only in a single school. The increasing emphasis upon the 
larger wholes of literature is evident. Nevertheless, the practice of 
using numerous shorter selections discussed on pages 137-140 con- 
tinued to the close of the century. Two aims were attempted in 
teaching literature, indicated by the emphasis upon "critical study" 
and "general reading and composition work." It is clear, however, 
that the first aim mentioned received the most attention and that 
even the composition work was dominated by this aim, resulting 
in an emphasis upon grammatical, rhetorical, and literary forms 
rather than upon content. 

The discussion of composition has been deferred until last 
because of its dependence upon, and vital relation to, the other 
English subjects. Before entering upon the consideration of this, 
the increasing attention given to the subject will be noted. 

The subject was given a place in the curriculum of the Boston 
High School at the beginning of 1821 and was taught more or 
less in high schools throughout the period under consideration. 
Not until near the close of the century, however, did it receive the 
attention at all approximating that which it now receives. Pre- 
vious to about 1890 it was not generally listed in the course of study, 
but included in a footnote along with declamation, select reading, 
music, and other general exercises.^ There were occasional excep- 
tions' to this but the general practice was as stated. The amount 
of time given to the subject cannot be determined from the general 
statement found in the footnotes that composition continues 
throughout the course.'' The fact, however, that it was listed with 

' Course oj Study, 1888. 



' Lourse oJ study, 1888. 

» Cf. pp. 20, 21, 22, 23, 2S, 26, 28, 31, 33. 

»C(. p. 24. «Cf. pp. 21,22, 28, 31, 33. 



ENGLISH 143 

Other general exercises indicates clearly that it did not receive the 
attention given to other subjects. Then in some cases the infre- 
quent character of the work is plainly indicated by such statements 
as the following: "Declamation and composition semi-monthly";' 
"Exercises in declamation and composition weekly throughout the 
Course";^ "Beginning with the third year original addresses and 
essays will be required once in three weeks to the end of the 
Course."^ In the later years of the period increase of time is 
implied from the fact that the subject is given a place in the body 
of the curriculum."* It is also shown by the further fact that one 
and two days per week were assigned to the work in some schools.^ 
Further evidence of increased attention being given to the subject 
is found in the outlines in English work published in the school 
reports and in the college entrance requirements. 

The composition work, not only in the early schools, but also 
at a later date, was no doubt of an informal sort in connection with 
general exercise. Literary societies were maintained and the 
literary part of the programs was made up of declamations and 
compositions or essays. "Rhetorical exercises occur every Friday 
during the fall and winter terms. "^ "Four rhetorical exercises 
each term to be required of each pupil."' "Literary exercises 
monthly," was a requirement in the Oskaloosa, Iowa, high school 
in 1876.* The Alliance, Nebraska, high school made the following 
requirement in 1890: "Each member of the third-year class will 
be required to write at least three essays on subjects chosen by the 
leader." Madison, Wisconsin, required the "delivery of competi- 
tive essays or orations at morning exercises or on graduation day."' 
The Canal Fulton, Ohio Annual School Report, 1892, contains the 
following statement: "During the three years in the high school, 
literary exercises consisting of recitations, essays, and debates are 
required." Fredonia, Kansas (1896), required "composition on 
various subjects during high-school work." 

t^- It is evident that composition work as indicated above was of an 
informal sort and that topics were derived from the reading and 

1 Cf. p. 20. 

' Cf. p. 21. 

' Cf. p. 22. 

•Cf. pp. 27, 28, 29, 34. 

» Cf. pp. 34, 40. 

■ Anmul Catalog oj tite Public Schools, Appleton, Wisconsin, 1886-87, p. 19. 

' .4 nnual Report of Public Schools, Napoleon, Ohio, 1888, p. 29. 

8 Rules and Regulations, p. 13. 

' Rules, Regulations, and Course of Study, 1896, p. ii. 



144 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

experience of the pupils. The work was carried on in connection 
with hterary society work, opening exercises, Friday afternoon 
programs, and commencement exercises. A comparatively large 
place was given to select reading and declamations, and training in 
oral expression no doubt received more attention than work in 
written composition. 

Some attention was necessarily paid to the technique of the work 
in the earlier years, but the formal side of composition was a later 
development. This earlier practice was to regard composition 
only in its relation to grammar, and the emphasis upon this phase 
of the work continued to the close of the century.' The formal 
character of the work in grammar has already been pointed out 
and in the earlier years composition was evidently regarded chiefly 
as a means of securing drill in the work in grammar. Textbooks 
show this both in the titles and in the exercises designated as 
composition. One of the later books^ devoted forty pages to com- 
position work, and while some attention is given to practical forms 
of composition, the chief emphasis even in the latest edition (1896) 
is upon grammatical forms. College entrance requirements in 
English as late as 1893 show clearly the survival of this earlier 
practice. 

The next phase in the development of formal work in composi- 
tion is marked by a shift of attention from grammar to rhetoric. 
It has already been shown that the older texts which presented the 
logical aspect of the subject were superseded about 1880 by other 
texts emphasizing figures of speech, literary forms, and the like. 
This change in character of subject-matter in rhetoric was accom- 
panied by use of composition exercises as a means of drill in rhetori- 
cal forms. In the preface of one of these books' is the following 
statement: 

The cry that comes up from teachers on all sides is that they need something 
more in the text books, something that after the principles of the sciences have 
been followed and clearly unfolded shall come on immediately to mark out work 
for the pupil to do in illustration of what he has learned and shall exact the 
doing of it, not in the recitation room, but in preparation for it, as appertaining 
to his lesson. 

The third stage in the development of composition work is 
marked by the emphasis upon its relation to literature. The 

1 Cakpenier, G. R., Baker, E. T., and Scott. F. N., Teacldns rf Englhh Composition. 1903, p. 230' 

2 Reed, Alonzo, and Kellogg, Brainard, Iligbcr Lessons in English, 1877, 1885, 1896, 

' Kellogg, Br^ainard, .4 Texl-Book in Rhetoric ■with Exhaustive Practice in Composition, 1880. This 
book and the later edition of 1892 were -.videly used as shown by lists of textbooks published in school 
reports. 



ENGLISH 145 

classics served two purposes — furnished themes and provided 
models of style. The amount of work increased and the pupils 
were given some practice in writing themes of some length instead 
of writing single sentences solely for the purpose of illustrating the 
application of grammatical and rhetorical rules. It is apparent, 
nevertheless, that the older forms of composition continued to 
predominate to the close of the century. 

One of the evidences of this is the emphasis already pointed out 
in connection with the discussion of literature, upon "critical and 
minute" study of classics. Since this point of view prevailed in 
the study of literature, it would naturally control in composition 
\(rork. There is also some direct evidence available. The Fort 
Scott, Kansas, report contains the following statement: 

Each term's work in English requires nine essays upon subjects specified 
by the instructors bearing upon the work in classics.' 

It is clear that this had reference to the classics "to be studied 
critically in class" and not those for general reading since a knowl- 
edge of the latter was tested by examinations "at stated times."^ 
An explanation is also given of the character of the work to be done 
in class which also indicates the character of the composition work. 
The explanation is as follows : 

The phrase to be studied critically in class means careful syntactical and 
etymological analysis in addition to style, thought, and literary value. The 
language of poetical structures must be paraphrased, the author's meaning fully 
brought out, the mechanical forms explained, and choice extracts memorized.' 

Other courses of study indicate the same character of work in 
composition. Entrance requirements also show the formal charac- 
ter of the work and the survival of the old emphasis upon gram- 
matical forms. DePauw University made the following require- 
ment in 1893: 

In 1894 and thereafter an additional semester's work will be required in 
Composition and Rhetoric with written exercises in capitalization, punctuation, 
paragraph, and sentence structure.'' 

The University of Illinois in 1895 states the following requirement 
under the caption "Composition and Rhetoric": 

Correct spelling, capitalization, paragraphing, idioms, definitions, and 
proper use of rhetorical figures.^ 

This statement is repeated for 1899-1900. 

> Annual Report, Ft. Scott City Schools, 1892, p. 6i. 

'■ Ibid., p. 64. 

' Ibid. 

• 01. Catalog, DePauw UniversUy, 1893. Entrance requirements. 

' Cf. Catalog, University oj Illinois, 1895. Entrance requirements. 



146 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

In spite of increase of attention given to composition and the 
changes in the character of the work already indicated, it is apparent 
that the emphasis upon grammatical and rhetorical forms con- 
tinued. The growth in importance of literature, and particularly 
the introduction of classics, stimulated the work in composition. 
The prevalence, however, of the severely critical point of view of 
teaching literature resulted in narrowing composition work to a 
mere drill in the use of grammatical, rhetorical, and literary forms. 
The larger aims and purposes of composition, through correlation 
with other school subjects and extra-school interests and activities, 
and the technique of working this out, belong to a later period in its 
development. This is foreshadowed somewhat by the textbooks 
published at the very close of the century. 

Scott and Denney's book' is one of these. The authors state in 
the preface the following purposes of the book: 

First, it is desirable that a clearer union than has prevailed hitherto be 
brought about between secondary composition and secondary rhetoric. 

The rhetoric referred to has already been explained on pp. 126-128: 

Second, it is desirable in secondary composition that greater use be made 

of the paragraph than has hitherto been done in the majority of schools ' 

A third idea underlying the work is the idea of growth. A composition is regarded 
not as a dead form, to be analyzed into its component parts, but a living product 

of an active, creative mind In working out these ideas, care has been 

taken to provide illustrative material of a kind that should be thought-provoking, 
interesting, and valuable in itself, but not too far above the standard of literary 
practice, material which the pupil can appreciate readily and can turn to account 

at once in his own written work Care has also been taken in the way the 

text is stated, as well as in the way the exercises are presented, to suggest that 
the study is pursued for the purpose of acquiring constructive rather than critical 
power and the authors venture to advise that until chapter iv is reached, minute 
criticism be avoided; let criticisms be made solely with reference to the matter 
treated in the current lesson, and to bad English that may be used by the pupil. 

The book exphasizes the composition as a whole and abounds in 
suggestive material and in constructive directions for writing. 
It differs radically from the older critical type of work which em- 
phasized grammatical and rhetorical forms. As has been said this 
type of work belongs rather to the years following the close of the 
period. 

> Scott, F. N., and Denney, J. V., Composition-Rhetoric, 1S97. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE SCIENCES 

This field presents a rather confused situation as regards the 
subject-matter of the various subjects. They differ widely as to 
amounts and character of change and there is much overlapping 
due to different points of view presented by textbooks and the 
continued use of old textbooks in some schools when new books 
of a different t>'pe had been introduced in other schools. In spite 
of this confusion, however, changes in subject-matter in most of 
the science subjects is rather marked and these different types of 
material fall into periods more or less clearly defined. 

It has been shown in Table XIX that the average time devoted 
to this field remained practically the same comparing the period 
1860-65 with that of 1896-1900. It will also be observed that at 
the beginning the average exceeded the mode by approximately 
one-fourth year while at the close they were three and one-eighth 
years respectively. This indicates that greater uniformity pre- 
vailed in the later years, although there were, no doubt, many 
small schools that gave comparatively little attention to the science 
subjects. Table XIX, furthermore, shows that some of the sub- 
jects decline in importance and this means, of course, that more 
attention was given to other subjects in this field. 

Taking the schools as a whole then, and the field as a whole, 
the first way in which science instruction changed was in this shift 
of attention from some of the subjects to others. Table X should 
not be interpreted literally in this regard, but it is clear, neverthe- 
less, that a much smaller percentage of schools was offering geology 
and astronomy in 1900 than in 1865, and that more attention was 
being given to the biological sciences, and also, through increase of 
time, to physics. 

The most important changes in subject-matter were due to the 
various aims or points of view which determined the selection of 
material and its organization, and the emphases employed in teach- 
ing. As has been said, there was considerable confusion in this 
regard and it is only by a careful study of the aims set forth in 
school reports and in the prefaces of texts and, most of all, an 
analysis of the subject-matter itself, that one is able to arrive at 

147 



148 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

anything like a correct interpretation of the character of instruction 
given. Three aims or points of view are clearly revealed. 

1. The religious aim, which survived from earlier schools, is 
still evident in 1860. This was apparently not very important but 
references are made to it in the prefaces of textbooks, and this 
practice survived almost to the close of the century. The aim is 
also revealed by the subject-matter in an occasional text.' 

2. An aim far more influential than the religious one was the 
knowledge aim. This really represented two points of view. The 
first of these emphasized the value of knowledge as such — truth 
for truth's sake — and to the end that the learner might be regarded 
as an intelligent person.- As one author' phrased it in reference 
to the text, in the preface: 

It includes only that which every well-informed person ought to know of 
the subject. 

The other point of view emphasized the importance of science 
from the standpoint of its practical utility as distinguished from a 
knowledge which merely contributed to one's general intelligence. 
The distinction was not always clear in the statement of aims, and 
some of the authors who claimed the twofold aim failed to empha- 
size the so-called practical aspect in the subject-matter itself. '' 
Steele's texts, ^ throughout, emphasized more or less the latter 
viewpoint. 

3. The third viewpoint, the controlling one, particularly 
during the latter part of the period, was that of mental discipline. 
Whatever else the author claimed as the aim of teaching science, 
he only infrequently failed to state that discipline was one of the 
aims, if, indeed, not the chief one. Each of these viewpoints will 
be discussed in detail in connection with the treatment of the 
various science subjects. 

1. THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 

Natural history, as shown by Table X, occupied a relatively 
important place in the curriculum during the period 1860-65. This 
is followed by a decline and final disappearance of the subject from 
the high school. The subject-matter, however, continued as 

* Hitchcock, Edward, and Hitchcock, Edward, Jr., Elementary Physiology, 1860, pp. 420-32. 

2 Hooker, Washington, Natural History for the Use of Schools and Families, 1860. 

' Hooker, Washington, Chemistry, 1863. 

< Ibid. 

^ A Series of Science Texts by J. Dorman Steele. 



THE SCIENCES 149 

biology and more particularly as zoology. The author of one of 
the texts' in use states in the preface the aims in teaching the 
subject : 

First this study has a practical bearing upon many of the most valuable and 
extensive occupations of man — agriculture, horticulture, etc. 

He further says : 

The practical benefit to be derived from the study of Natural History or, 
indeed, any of the natural sciences, is the discipline which it gives the mental 
powers. It develops the perceptive and reasoning powers together thus forming 
that habit of intelligent observation which marks the possessor, as a matter of 
course, as a person of extensive information, and is an essential element of success 
in almost any pursuit in which he may engage. 

In spite of the emphasis which he placed in the preface upon 
the practical value of a knowledge of the subject in its relation to 
agriculture and horticulture, the book itself gives scant attention 
to this phase of the subject. The first chapter is devoted to a 
summarized discussion of the classification of ani mals. Then a 
more detailed discussion is given of quadrupeds, rodents, ruminants, 
etc.; birds of prey, scratchers, wading and swimming birds; reptiles, 
fishes, and insects of all sorts and descriptions. In fact, a large 
section of the book is devoted to insects. The text as a whole is 
descriptive of the various types of animal life, the descriptions 
dealing chiefly with the physical characteristics of animals although 
some attention is paid to their habits of life. The emphasis upon 
the knowledge aspect of the subject without much reference to its 
"practical bearing upon the occupations of man" is shown clearly 
not only by the contents but by the lists of questions provided at 
the close of each chapter. 

Another book^ of this same period was similar in many respects 
to Hooker's text. It is, however, simpler in content and method 
of treatment and places somewhat less emphasis upon anatomical 
structure and classification. The following statement in the pre- 
face is a fair characterization of the book : 

Upon the whole, the general design of this publication is to convey to the 
minds of youth, and of such as may have paid little attention to the study of 
nature, a species of knowledge which is not difficult to acquire. The knowledge 
will be a perpetual and inexhaustible source of many pleasures; it will afford 
innocent and virtuous amusement, and will occupy agreeably the leisure or 
vacant hours of life. 

1 Hooker, Washington, NnUtral Bistory for the Use of Schools and Families, 1860. p. 211. 
' Ware. John. Physiology oj Natural History 1860. 



150 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

This book like tlie other one introduces the subject by means of 
a summarized classification of animals from the standpoint of 
anatomical structure but does not continue the emphasis. Atten- 
tion soon shifts to supposed or real characteristics of the different 
types of animal life. The author discusses modes of communica- 
tion, education of the senses, reproduction, coverings of animals, 
their migrations, and habitations. In their relations to man he 
discusses their education and domestication and gives Interesting 
and naive accounts of what he calls the artifices of animals. 
These accounts are mostly of the "we are told" sort, and while 
interesting are probably not true. His chapter on the mental 
constitution of animals, their instincts, and intelligence, is on the 
same plane as the "we are told" sort of stories. The concluding 
chapter is devoted to the religious value of scientific knowledge. 
As has been said, this subject, as such, declined and was finally 
dropped from the curriculum and changes in subject-matter will 
be discussed in connection with zoology. 

The subject-matter of zoology roughly divided itself into four 
periods. In the earlier years the material was of the same general 
character as that already described in the discussion connected with 
natural history. The tendency, however, was toward the more 
formal aspect of the subject and the old type of material finally 
disappears. In the second stage, comparative anatomy was made 
the basis of the work and anatomical structure and the classification 
of animals received the emphasis of attention. This point of view 
was evident even in the earlier books. One' of these shows very 
clearly this emphasis. It abounded in technical terms and gave 
extensive and minute classifications. Anatomical structure re- 
ceived a large share of attention to the exclusion practically of 
habits of life and general characteristics of animals. Packard's 
text^ is an example of the emphasis upon anatomical structure. 
Quotations from the prefaces of the various editions will indicate 
the point of view and method of treatment. In the preface of the 
first edition the author says: 

Before taking up the book each member of the class should be required to 
examine a fish . . . .; the pupil should draw it with all the fins expanded; then, 
with the aid of directions on pages 154-57, by means of a small scalpel, forceps, 
and scissors, the student should dissect the fish, drawing the heart, stomach, etc., 

> Chambers, Elements oj Zoology or Natural History oj Animals. Edited by D. M. Reese, M.D., 
1866. ^ 

> Packard, A. S , ZoUlogy, 1883. Revised in 1885, 1886, 1892. 



THE SCIENCES 151 

and a transverse section; a preparation of the brain can be easily made with the 
aid of a competent teacher. Having thus obtained some notion of the structure 
of a common vertebrate animal as a basis of comparison, the class can begin to 
study the book; meanwhile, once or twice a week, if not oftener, taking a labora- 
tory lesson, drawing, and dissecting a star-fish, clam, or fresh water mussel; a 
lobster or crayfish; a horseshoe crab, locust or grasshopper; and finally a fish, 
frog, and cat. A small collection of corals, shells, and a few dried or alcoholic 
insects and skeletons of a fish, frog, reptile, bird, and cat should also be examined 
and referred to constantly in using this or any other textbook. In this way and 
with an occasional field excursion after living animals, the study of zoology can 
be made of the highest interest and value, calling out both the observing and 
reflective faculties. 

The preface to the edition of 1885 shows the importance attached 
to those things which could be of interest only to the specialist. 

The most important discovery made since this book was published is that 
the two lowest mammals, i.e., the duckbill and the Echidna, both lay eggs; .... 
nervous system of the Echinodernis has been found to consist of a delicate sheet 
lying under the integument. 

The edition of the next year calls attention to the following: 

The Tunicates are placed in the sub-kingdoms as the Vertebrates; the 
Merostomata and Trilobites are regarded together, forming a class of Anthropoda 
called Podostomata; the sub-kingdom Anthropoda is subdivided into six classes; 
the Molacopoda, Myriopoda, Arachnida and Insecta being regarded as classes, 
instead of sub-classes as in the former edition. The orders of insects have been 
increased from eight to sixteen. 

The various editions of the text itself show the same technical 
classificatory treatment as indicated by the prefaces. Anatomical 
structure is described in detail and the method suggested in the 
preface of the edition of 1883 indicates the importance placed upon 
dissection. 

The third stage is in reality a broadening of the work of the 
preceding stage. Anatomical structure still remained the basis 
of the work but the morphological point of view was emphasized. 
This type of work placed much stress upon the lower forms of 
animal life and upon laboratory work. The amoeba, sponge, 
Hydra, earthworm, mussel, frog, and the like received emphasis 
to an almost entire neglect of the higher forms commonly found in 
the older books. Some of the texts emphasized this phase of the 
subject to such an extent that the courses provided were more 
truly in animal and plant morphology than biology in the broader 
sense. Boyer's Elementary Biology^ is an example of this type of 

' BoYER, F. R., A Laboratory Manual in Biology: An Inductive Study in Animal anl Plant Mor- 
phology, 1894. 



152 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

book. The disciplinary point of view prevailed as shown by the 
following quotation from the preface: 

The aim is to develop rather than to inform; hence the laboratory method 
is more important than the information involved. Accuracy in observation is a 
prerequisite to accuracy and clearness in description or statement, as well as to 
logical inference or conclusion. 

When one compares the material in this type of text with that of 
the earlier years of the period the contrast is very striking. There 
was certainly nothing in these later books which would "afford 
innocent and virtuous amusement and occupy agreeably the leisure 
or vacant hours of life." 

The fourth stage really lies beyond the scope of this chapter. 
It was marked by an attempt to combine the earlier natural history 
type of material with the more formal anatomical and morpho- 
logical types immediately preceding it. Field work is combined 
with laboratory work and the emphasis was upon the functional 
aspect of animal life. Davenport's Introduction to Zoology (1900) 
was influential in bringing about the changes which mark the period. 

Botany as shown by Table X has occupied an important place 
in science instruction. It was a short-time subject and except for 
the change from the three-term to the semester plan the time 
devoted to it remained practically constant. Attention has 
already been called to the lack of correlation between this subject 
and zoology after the older type of material called natural history 
ceased to be taught. Toward the close of the century biology 
begins to receive attention, but on the whole, botany remained 
detached from other science subjects to the close of the century. 

The teaching of botany may with some degree of accuracy be 
divided into four periods. The subject was regarded as a premedi- 
cal study and was offered by higher institutions for medical stu- 
dents. This type of instruction, however, belongs to a time pre- 
ceding 1860 and the aim has probably had little, if, indeed, any 
influence in determining subject-matter or method of treatment 
since that date. The secondary texts were nothing more than 
abridgments of the more advanced texts and contained merely a 
less amount of the same kind of material. During these early 
years the religious aim was among those stated in the prefaces, and 
in the mind of the author of the book' most in use after I860 this 
aim seems to have exerted some influence. It is probable that 

' Gray, Asa, How Plants Grow. 1858. 



THE SCIENCES 153 

teachers were more or less influenced by it in their interpretations 
and applications, but there is not much direct evidence bearing 
upon the question. 

The second period is characterized by an emphasis almost to 
the entire seclusion of everything else upon anatomical structure. 
The chief aim to be realized in teaching the subject, if one draws 
his conclusions from the subject-matter and its organization, was 
to train students in the technique of analyzing and classifying 
flowers and plants. Much attention was given to a minute des- 
cription of plants from the standpoint of structure and to a classi- 
fication of these with reference to kind, genera, and species. 

Botany furnishes an exception in the field of science in that 
two books, as shown by lists of te.xts published in school reports, 
were used more than all others combined. Gray's text, already 
cited above, was used almost exclusively until 1895 and even in 
the period 1896-1900 it was used in more schools than any other 
single text and in nearly half of the schools listed in Table H. This 
book, therefore, constitutes the chief source of information con- 
cerning the character of instruction to 1895 and from that date to 
1900 for nearly one-half of the schools.' The other book^ belongs 
to the third period and will be discussed later. It stands next to 
Gray's text, and these two were used in about 75 per cent of the 
schools during the period 1896-1900. 

Since Gray's text was so largely used it will be taken as a basis 
for explanation of the character of the subject-matter and method 
of treatment which characterized the second period. This book 
was published first in 1858 and continued to be published practically 
without revision. The book is divided into two parts. Part I 
contains four chapters having the following titles: chapter i, 
"How Plants Grow and What Their Parts or Organs Are," fifty 
pages; chapter ii, "How Plants Are Propagated or Multiplied in 
Numbers," twenty-nine pages; chapter ill, "Why Plants Grow, 
What They Are Made for and What They Do," eight pages; 
chapter iv, "How Plants Are Classified, Named, and Studied," 
fourteen pages. Part H consists of "Popular Flora, A Classifica- 
tion and Description of the Common Plants of the Country, 
Both Wild and Cultivated under Their Natural Orders," one 

1 There were other texts by Gray but this book was the one in use in most of the schools. The other 
texts by this author do not differ in character of subject-matter. 
» Bergen, J. Y., Elements of Botany, 1896. 



154 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

hundred and eleven pages. Chapter iv really belongs to Part II 
since it consists of minute instructions in the art of classifying, 
naming, and studying plants. 

The viewpoint of the author can be stated by quoting from the 
preface : 

Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow: they toil not, neither do they 
spin; and yet I say unto you, that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed 
like one of these. — Matthew vi, 28, 29. Our Lord's direct object in his lesson 
of the lilies was to convince the people of God's care for them. Now this 
clothing of the earth with plants and flowers — at once so beautiful and so useful, 
so essential to all animal life — is one of the very ways in which He takes care 
of his creatures. And when Christ himself directs us to consider with attention 
the plants around us — to notice how they grow, how varied, how numerous, and 
how elegant they are, and with what exquisite skill they are fashioned and 
adorned — we shall surely find it profitable and pleasant to learn the lessons which 
they teach. 

"Now this considering of plants inquiringly and intelligently is 
the study of botany. It is an easy study when pursued in the 
right way and with diligent attention. There is no difficulty in 
understanding how plants grow, are nourished by the ground, the 
rain, and the air, nor in learning what their parts are, how they are 
adapted to each other, and the way the plants live. And any 
young person who will take some pains about it may learn to dis- 
tinguish all our common plants, and to find out their names. 

"Interesting as this study is to all, it must be particularly so 
to young people. It appeals to their natural curiosity — to their 
lively desire to know about things; it calls out and directs, i.e., 
educates, their powers of observation, and is adapted to sharpen 
and exercise, in a very pleasant way, the faculty of discrimination. 
To learn how to observe and how to distinguish things correctly is the 
greater part of education, and is that in which people otherwise 
well educated are apt to be deficient. Natural objects, everywhere 
present and endless in variety, afiford the best field for practice; 
and the study when young, first of botany, and afterwards of the 
other natural sciences, as they are called, is the best training that 
can be in these respects. This study ought to begin even before 
the study of language, for to distinguish things scientifically, i.e., 
carefully and accurately, is simpler than to distinguish ideas. 
In natural history the learner is gradually led from the observation 
of things, up to the study of ideas or the relation of things." 

"The first and most important thing for a student is to know 
well the general plan of a plant and the way it grows, the parts of 



THE SCIENCES 155 

plants, the uses of the several parts, their general forms, and the 
names which are used to distinguish them. This is all very inter- 
esting and very useful in itself, and it is indispensable for studying 
plants with any satisfaction or advantage to find out their names, 
their properties, and the family they belong to, i.e., to ascertain 
the kinds of plants." 

An occasional reference is made to the religious aspect of the 
subject in the textbook itself as the following will show: 

In learning as we have done. How Plants Grow and Why They Grow, have 
we not learned more of the lesson of the text placed at the beginning of this book, 
and of the verses that follow? "Wherefore if God so clothed the grass of the 
field, shall He not much more clothe you? .... Therefore, take no thought, 
saying What shall we eat? or. What shall we drink? or Wherewithal shall we be 
clothed? For your Heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these 
things." And we now perceive that causing plants to grow is the very way in 
which He bountifully supplies these needs, and feeds, clothes, warms, and shelters 
the myriads of beings He has made, and especially Afan whom he made to have 
dominion over them all." 

In order that the vegetable creation might be adapted to every soil, situation 
and climate, and to the different wants of the greatest variety of animals as well 
as to the many peculiar needs of mankind, God created plants in a vast number 
of kinds. .\nd in order that these should be perpetuated and kept distinct He 
ordained that each should yield and seed fruit "after its kind." So each sort of 
plant multiplies and perpetuates itself from generation to generation.- 

It will be observed from the statements concerning the divisions 
of the book that about one-half is devoted to the "Popular Flora" 
and instructions concerning how to classify, name, and study 
plants. The emphasis of the text is almost entirely upon a study 
of the anatomical structure of plants and flowers in order to classify 
them with reference to class, order, or family, genus, and specie. 
This is carried out in great detail as shown by the treatment of 
leaves. More than fifty figures are used to illustrate the minute 
descriptions of the various kinds. More than forty figures are 
employed to illustrate the descriptions of the forms and kinds of 
flowers. These descriptions abound in technical terms and a 
strictly logical order of treatment prevails. There is nowhere any 
suggestion of the application of the knowledge gained except in 
gaining more of the same kind. At the close of each section an 
"analysis of the section" is given. The following is a sample of 
the analysis: 

Leaves: Their parts — blade footstalk, stipules; simple and compound; 
structure and veining of leaves — woody or fibrous part, cellular tissue or green 

' Gray, Asa, How Plants Grow, 1858. cbap. iii, p. 92. 
' Ibid., chap, iv, p. 93. 



156 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

pulp, epidermis or skin; ribs; veins and veinlets; nerves, so-called; netted veined 
and reticulated.' 

This is carried out still farther in the shapes of leaves. Seeds, 
flowers, stems, and roots are all treated in the same detailed manner. 

The author no doubt intended that the student should have 
opportunity to study plants and flowers first hand as shown by the 
following statement in the preface: 

Let the learners, or the class under their teacher, in the first place go carefully 
once through the First Part, or at least through the first two chapters, verifying 
the examples and illustrations given, as far as possible with their own eyes, and 
searching for other examples in the plants and flowers around them. 

He indicates the emphasis upon the subject-matter of the text in 
the following: 

Then they may begin to study plants by the Flora, or Second Part of the 
book, according to directions given in the last section of Chapter iv. 

Probably very little laboratory work was done. There is not much 
evidence found either way in the printed courses of study but what 
there is of it is nearly all negative. Some statements are found 
deploring the lack of laboratory facilities and the purely textbook 
character of the work, while only very rarely is anything said on 
the positive side. In these cases the statements are no more 
detailed than to say that pupils are expected to prepare herbariums 
consisting of forty or fifty specimens. 

The third period is characterized by the emphasis upon the 
morphology of plants. Bergen's text referred to on page 153 is 
typical of the books published after 1890, emphasizing the mor- 
phological aspect of the subject. The author mentions other 
phases of botany in the preface such as geographical distribution, 
vegetable physiology, and vegetable ecology. He says, however: 
There is not usually time to take up botanical geography or to do much more than 
mention the important subject of economic botany, the study of the uses of 
plants to man. It ought, however, to be possible for the student to learn in his 
high-school course a good deal about the simpler parts of morphology and of 
vegetable physiology.'' 

The text itself shows the same emphasis upon morphology as 
indicated in the preface. The explanation of the term morphology 
in the preface is a fair characterization of the text. 

Morphology, or the science of form, structure, and so on, deals with the plant 
without much regard to its character as a living thing. Lender this head are 

I Gray, Asa, How Planls Grow, 1858. 

' Beegen, J. Y., Elements of Botany, 1896. 



THE SCIENCES 157 

studied the forms of plants and the various shapes or disguises which the same 
sort of organ may take in different kinds of plants, their gross structure, their 
classification, and the successive stages in the history of the germs from which 
all but a few of the simplest plants are formed. 

Thirty-three experiments are called for and much other labora- 
tory work contemplated. There are two hundred and eight figures 
used to illustrate the descriptive material of the text. The nature 
of the work is explained in brief as follows: 

One does not become a botanist — not even much of an amateur in the sub- 
ject — by reading books about botany. It is necessary to study plants themselves, 
to take them to pieces and make out the connection of their parts, to examine 
with the microscope small sections of the exterior surface and thin slices of all of 
the variously built materials or tissues of which the plant consists. 

The method of treatment here suggested is further emphasized 
in Appendix A by a detailed description of how to use a compound 
microscope. Appendix B supplies an extended list of apparatus 
and Appendix C indicates the material for study in connection with 
each chapter. Appendix E is devoted to a detailed discussion of 
the purpose and use of the notebook. Two books are recom- 
mended — one for drawing and one for written notes. The impor- 
tance of systematized work is stressed and the reason for this is 
stated as follows: 

It will go far toward training the pupil into a scientific habit of mind if he is 
required in his notes and his recitations to distinguish clearly the sources of his 
knowledge.' 

The point of view of the author, the methods of teaching and 
learning insisted upon, and the text itself all lead to the conviction 
that the work was very formal and even highly technical. Knowl- 
edge of plant life except in the most narrow sense, certainly was not 
the controlling aim in instruction. On the contrary, it seems to 
have been that of mental discipline stated in terms of "training 
into a scientific habit of mind." The century closed with this 
type of instruction prevailing in many schools and within a very 
short time it became practically universal in secondary education. 
The fourth period will be discussed in Part III. 

Physiology, like grammar and arithmetic, was taught in the 
grades as well as the high school. It has therefore never been 
regarded as distinctively a secondary subject as have the other 
biological sciences and clear lines of demarcation between elemen- 

' Bergen, J. Y., Elements oj Botany, 1896. Appendix E. 



158 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

tary, high-school, and college texts are not always drawn. In 
consequence of this, the work is not standardized and varied from 
very elementary in character to that of college grade, depending 
upon the particular kind of textbooks in use. For example, one 
school would use Martin's Human Body,^ a college text, while 
another would use The Eclectic Physiology,- an elementary text. 
On the whole, however, the latter class of books as shown by pub- 
lished lists of texts, were in most common use. 

In a general way physiology has passed through stages similar 
to those of the other biological sciences. For example the religious 
aim was more or less common in the earlier years. The knowledge 
aim functioned considerably throughout the whole period, i.e., 
knowledge as an end in itself. The other aim which controlled 
more or less was the so-called practical or hygienic aim. This, 
however, came rather late, not much emphasis being placed upon 
it until near the close of the century. The subject-matter which 
received the most attention throughout the whole period was of the 
anatomical sort. 

The authors of one of the earlier books' state the following in 
the preface: 

This work is offered to the public in the hope that it has some desirable fea- 
tures as a textbook not found in any of the able elementary works on anatomy 
and physiology now extant. One is the introduction of more microscopic work 
in anatomy than is usual. Another is the large addition of comparative anatomy 
which has now become a science of great importance. The third is the religious 
application of this science. 

The author states that he has attempted to give a condensed yet 
clear exposition of the leading principles and facts. What particu- 
lar value these would have for anyone save a physician or a teacher 
of anatomy is not readily seen. In this book one hundred pages 
are devoted to a study of bones; fifty pages to the muscles; fifty 
pages to the nutritive system, and still another fifty pages to the 
circulation of the blood. The other usual topics follow with less 
space devoted to each. The emphasis throughout the book is 
upon anatomy of a rather technical sort. Considerable attention 
is given, as has been promised, to "comparative anatomy and 
physiology," and finally about fifteen pages are devoted to what 

• Martin, H. Newell, The Human Body: An Account of lis Structure .mJ Acli-.ilies and the Con- 
ditions of Its Eeallhy Wortine, 1880 and 1890. 

I Brown, Eli F., The Eclectic Physiology for Use in Schools, 1884. 

• HrrcHCOCK, Edward, and Hitchcock, Edward Jr., Elementary Physiology, 1866. 



THE SCIENCES 159 

he calls "religious inferences from anatomy and physiology." 
His discussion falls under these general topics as follows: I. Proofs 
of the existence of God. II. Proofs of divine benevolence. III. 
Anatomy and physiology furnish presumptive evidence that the 
world is in a fallen condition. IV. Anatomy and physiology fur- 
nish proof of divine unity. V. Anatomy and physiology disprove 
the atheistic hypothesis that the development of animal organs is 
the result of mere law. He attacks what he calls the development 
hypothesis as follows: 

This hypothesis supposes that the organs were not contrived and constructed 
by an intcUigcMit mind for the uses to which they are applied but that the influence 
of the living mass of almost amorphus matter led to such efforts as ultimately to 
form an organ.' 

VI. Anatomy and physiology show the unreasonableness of object- 
ing to mystery in religion. 

The cases of mystery in anatomy and physiology are more striking than in 
religion. - 

The emphasis upon hygiene, theoretically at least, began about 
1875 with the publication of Hutchison's text. The author was a 
physician and the book clearly shows the influence of the profes- 
sional point of view. Anatomical structure comes in for consider- 
able attention but more emphasis is given to physiology than was 
the case in Hitchcock's book. Its technical character is illustrated 
by considerable attention being given to the use of the microscope 
and to dissection. As a matter of fact, about all of the so-called 
practical subject-matter in the book is placed in an appendix and 
deals with poisons and their antidotes. 

Another book' in quite general use, published ten years later, 
contains the same general character of subject-matter and the 
method of treatment is very similar to the book described above. 
This book is in fact a text on anatomy, very little attention being 
given to hygiene. The emphasis is upon descriptions of the various 
parts of the human body and the physiological processes that go on. 
For example, in the chapter on the digestive organs and digestion, 
most of the discussion is devoted to an explanation of the digestive 
process with but little reference to the health side of the matter. 
A great deal of emphasis is placed throughout the book upon dis- 

' Elementary Physiology, Hitchcock, Edw. and Hitchcock, Edw. Jr., 1806, p. 4J1. 

' [bid. 

* Cotter, John S., Comprehensive Physiology, Analomy and Hygiene, 1885. 



160 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

section and the use of the microscope. About twenty pages at the 
close of the book are devoted to the care of the sick and emergency 
cases. This is intended to be of a practical sort, but the language 
and the instructions are such that it is very doubtful whether any- 
one except a physician or a trained nurse would be able to get very 
much out of it. 

The books began soon after 1880 to include a treatment of the 
effects of stimulants and narcotics and to place relatively more 
emphasis upon hygiene. The Eclectic, for example, devotes nine 
pages to "Elementary Sanitary Science." This chapter includes 
such topics as, what to eat and drink, clothing and cleanliness, pure 
air, and care of the sick. Four pages are given to "Emergency 
and Accident" and fourteen pages to "Alcohol — Its Effects upon 
the Body and Mind." Short paragraphs throughout the book 
are devoted to hygiene of the skin, of the eyes, of the ears, and 
the like. 

2. THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 

This constitutes the most important branch of the sciences 
from the standpoint of the percentage of schools offering science as 
shown by Table X. Physics was the one constant among the 
sciences and chemistry was offered in more than three-fifths of the 
schools' at the close, and the average was above this for the entire 
forty-year period. Theoretically, at least, the points of view con- 
trolling in the biological sciences obtained here, except the reli- 
gious, and that seems to have had no influence in determining the 
selection of subject-matter or emphasis in instruction. 

Physics, natural philosophy being the older term, was the one 
science taken over from the earlier schools whose place was firmly 
established in the curriculum of all the high schools and whose 
increasing importance is shown by any considerable increase in 
time devoted to the subject. 

The teaching of physics was controlled by two aims and the 
character of instruction was determined by the emphasis upon one 
or the other of these. Roughly speaking, the knowledge aim con- 
trolled during the first twenty years and the disciplinary one there- 
after. The earlier period was really characterized by an attempt, 
theoretically at least, to realize both aims, while in the later period, 
both theoretically and practically, the disciplinary controlled 
almost entirely. 

' Chemistry, as stated in Part I, was confined to the larger schools in a greater degree than physics, 
and this percentage would not represent the exact status if the same schools were represented propor- 
tionally in the taVjles. 



THE SCIENCES 161 

As pointed out in connection with the discussion of the aims in 
teaching the science subjects, pages 147-8, the knowledge aim was 
really a twofold one. Knowledge was valuable for its own sake 
and also because of its use in the practical affairs of life. The 
earlier books all emphasized in their prefaces the importance of 
knowledge from both these standpoints. Only an occasional book, 
however, made good in the text the promise made in the preface. 
In commenting upon textbooks in physics. Professor Woodhull 
says: 

In 1850, in the preface of his Natural Philosophy, Wells wrote: "The princi- 
ples of physical science are so intimately connected with the arts and occupations 
of everyday life, with our very existence and continuance as sentient beings, that 
public opinion at the present time imperatively demands that the course of 
instruction in this subject shall be as full, thorough, and complete as opportunity 
and time will permit." .... Of the fifty or more high-school texts written in 
the last fifty years there is scarcely one which has not repeated the sentiment in 
its preface. When, however, we come to look into the body of the text we are 
invariably disappointed. Those who have written within the last fifteen years 
have noticeably been circumscribed in this matter.' 

Examination of textbooks reveals that the above is a fair characteri- 
zation, not only of later books, but also of some of the earlier ones. 
On the whole, however, the period preceding 1880 was characterized 
by a type of instruction which emphasized the more practical phase 
of the subject. After that date attention was shifted to laboratory 
work involving the performing of experiments by pupils, and 
instruction became not only formal but also rather barren of useful 
knowledge of any sort. Commenting upon this contrast, Pro- 
fessor Woodhull says : 

Wells, under the head "Strength of Material" gives an interesting and illumi- 
nating account covering eight pages, dealing with hollow bones of animals, 
hollow stalks of grain, columns of buildings, and other interesting things. Within 
the last fifteen years, however, the exigences of college preparation have sub- 
stituted for all this a laboratory exercise in which each pupil attempts to find out 
the number of grains required to break a piece of small wire. We certainly need 
common sense instruction about strength material. 

All of the earlier books, however, do not emphasize the "philoso- 
phy of common things." Comstock's text- is an example. It is 
almost wholly descriptive and without any practical applications of 
the facts learned. There are no mathematical problems and the 

1 WooDHUlL, J. F., Tfte Teaching oj Physical Science, 1910, p. 5. 

! CousTOCK, J. L.. A System of Natural Philosophy. 1840. There were later editions not differing 
essentially from the edition of 1840. 



162 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

book abounds in cuts and drawings to illustrate the principles 
studied. It is evident that no experiments are performed by the 
pupils but it calls for or at least suggests considerable demonstration 
work to be given by the teacher. The knowledge aim controls 
and is of a sort that "every well-informed person ought to know," 
but with no suggestion of practical application. 

Parker's Philosophy^ is similar to Comstock's except that it 
contains a number of mathematical problems. It abounds in 
definitions, and the general plan of organization is that of question 
and answer. There is no suggestion anywhere in the book of 
emphasis upon a knowledge of "common things" as was the case 
in Wells's text and a later one by Steele. No experimentation is 
required of students and probably no demonstration work expected 
of the teacher. This book shows that it belongs to the older 
order by including about sixty-five pages of subject-matter belong- 
ing to astronomy. 

Cooley's text^ was one of the books published before 1880 that 
emphasized the disciplinary aim. In the preface the author says: 

The great aim of this little book is to present the most elementary facts of 
"Natural Philosophy" in such a way as to cause the student to thoroughly and 
consistently observe phenomena and to draw inferences from what he observes. 
The study is not only easy and interesting; it is also in the highest degree beneficial 
to the young partly because of the value of the facts which it imparts but even 
more on account of the mental power it develops. The object of primary educa- 
tion should be to discipline the senses to habits of quick and accurate observation 
and the mind to the habit of forming correct judgments from the facts which the 
senses reveal. Natural Philosophy furnishes abundant material of the most 
excellent kind by means of which this may be accomplished. 

The author states that the subject is to be introduced by means 
of easy experiments with phenomena of common occurrence and the 
pupil called upon to notice what these suggest. This is to be 
followed by a precise and accurate statement of the principle 
involved. Many of the paragraph titles are in the form of ques- 
tions. The experiments are of the most simple sort and seem to 
be rather remotely related to the experience of the average high- 
school student. It is evident, however, that demonstration by 
the teacher and no experiments by the student is the real intent of 
the author. On the whole the book is concrete and contains a 
wide range of information. 

* Parker's Philosophy. Revised by George W. Plympton, 1871. 

' Cooi.EV, Roy C, Natural Philosophy Jor Common and High Schools, 1872. 



THE SCIENCES 163 

Another book' of the same period emphasizing the general 
knowledge aim and also experimentation as a method is one by 
Rolfe and Gillett. It consists of two parts also published as 
separate volumes. Part I is entitled "Elements of Natural Philo- 
sophy" but it might better be "Mechanics" since it treats quite 
exclusively that phase of the subject. The title to Part II is 
"Light, Sound, and Heat" and is justified by the contents. The 
book as a whole is evidently intended to give general information 
without any suggestions relating to its application. Concerning 
experiments, the authors say in the preface: 

As the principles of physical science are all established by fact and observa- 
tion, the method has been adopted in this course of first establishing the fact by 
experiment when this is possible, and then drawing out the principle. From their 
experience as teachers, the authors strongly recommend that each lesson be 
explained and illustrated with the class before being given out to be studied. 

The emphasis, however, upon the descriptive work of the text is 
shown by the list of questions at the close which suggest no prob- 
lems or experiments but call merely for a knowledge of the contents 
of the book. 

A book^ in wide use after 1870 and in fact still in use in a con- 
siderable number of schools in 1900 emphasized the more familiar 
and practical aspects of the subject. The author wrote in the 
preface of one of the earlier editions (1873) as follows: 

From the multitude of principles only those have been selected which are 

essential to the information of every well-read person The aim is to 

lead young people to become lovers and interpreters of nature Choose 

simple experiments within the reach of every pupil at home. 

This is one of the books in which the text fulfils in large measure 
the promise contained in the preface. There was considerable 
emphasis upon "common things" and the experiments were simple, 
dealing with material in which the pupil would likely be interested 
and with which he would be more or less familiar. The whole 
method of treatment, however, is clearly of the descriptive type. 
The intention of the author in this regard is shown by the following 
under "Suggestions to Teachers": 

Scholars are expected to obtain information from this book without the aid 
of questions as they almost always do in their general reading. When the subject 
of the paragraph is announced, the pupil should be prepared to state all he knows 
about it. 

■ Rolfe and Gillett, A Book of Nalural Philosophy, 1868. 

= Steele, J Dorman, Fourteen Weeks in Natural Philosophy, 1868. 



164 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

At the close of the book four pages are devoted to descriptions of 
simple apparatus and a list of easy experiments. The reference 
to the importance of experiments found in the prefaces of the 
books between 1870 and 1880, and even earlier, begin to find 
expression in the texts themselves after 1880. The fact that labora- 
tory work is receiving some attention, and also the prevalence still 
of textbook methods, is shown by the following quoted from Circular 
of Ijiformation, Bureau of Education, 1880: 

In high schools and academies the teaching of chemistry and physics varies 
between widely separated limits. In the great majority of cases mere textbook 
work is done, only a few experiments being performed by the teacher. In some 
instances the scholars have laboratory practice in both subjects, the work in 
chemistry extending through a full year and including the outlines of analysis. 

Between these extremes all conceivable variations are to be found That 

laboratory practice is feasible for young people, all teachers familiar with 
that kind of instruction will testify. But as there are some who still doubt the 
practicability of laboratory methods, a little evidence may be presented here.' 

Following this is a brief summary of the results of an investiga- 
tion dealing with the prevalence and character of laboratory work. 
No distinction is made, however, between the work in physics and 
that in chemistry. Fifty schools report that laboratory work is 
"permitted." About double that number require it. The follow- 
ing are some of the extracts from these reports: "Thirty hours 
required — work elementary;" "twenty-four hours required — four 
hours per week for six weeks;" "only simple experiments are re- 
quired;" "laboratory once a week;" "each pupil does a little labora- 
tory work;" "the pupils have limited practice in a small laboratory." 

Textbooks even before this time began to show the emphasis 
upon laboratory work which had begun in chemistry at an earlier 
date. After 1885, the older type of instruction had ceased except 
as it survived through the use of such texts as Steele's. The books 
published after this date show conclusively that the era of supre- 
macy of the "Science of common things" had passed and that the 
new era of formal instruction had taken its place. Gage's text- 
was a typical one. The following from the preface indicates the 
author's point of view: 

An experience of about six years in requiring individual laboratory work from 
my pupils has constantly tended to strengthen my conviction that in this way 
alone can a pupil become a master of the subjects taught With a text- 

' Circular oj Information, No. 4, Bureau of Education, 1880. 
' Gage, A. P., Introduction to Physical Science, 1887. 



THE SCIENCES 165 

book prepared on the induction plan, and with classroom instruction harmonizing 
with it, the pupil will scarcely fail to catch the spirit and method of the instigator, 
while much of his limited time may profitably be expended in applying the 
principles acquired in making physical measurements.' 

A brief statement of my method of conducting laboratory exercises may be 
of service to some until their own experience has taught them better ways.' 
As a rule the principles and laws are discussed in the classroom in preparation 
for subsequent work in the laboratory. The pupil then enters the laboratory 
without a textbook, receives his notebook from the teacher, goes at once to an 
unoccupied (numbered) desk containing apparatus, reads on a mural blackboard 
the questions to be answered, the directions for the work to be done with the 

apparatus, measurements to be made, etc These notebooks are deposited 

in a receptacle near the door as he leaves the laboratory. Nothing is ever written 
in them except at the times of experimenting. These books are examined by the 
teacher; they contain the only written tests to which the pupil is subjected, 
except the annual test given under the direction of the Board of Supervisors. 

The book contains three hundred and fifty-five pages and two 
hundred and forty-four experiments are provided. Numerous 
exercises are given consisting of questions and problems and at 
the close is a list of review questions. These are in keeping with 
the subject-matter and method of treatment and indicate the formal 
character of the work. They show the emphasis upon such matters 
as the "number of grains required to break a piece of small wire." 

Carhart and Chute's texts- are similar to Gage's book in all 
essential respects. A great deal of emphasis is placed upon the 
mathematical phase of the subject and the questions and problems 
indicate the same general character of material and plan of treat- 
ments. Other texts of this period show the absence of the older 
type of subject-matter, and of the practical point of view, in the 
application of principles to matters of common interest in the 
fields of vocational activity. 

Professor Woodhull' quotes from several authors of textbooks 
to indicate the points of view prevailing in the physical sciences 
near the close of the century and especially to show the emphasis 
upon laboratory work. Some of these, however, show a beginning 
of the reaction against the formal and barren character of the work. 

Chemistry has suffered from the irrepressible wave of laboratory madness 

which has swept over the whole educational world Nothing too severe 

can be said against the mechanical and demoralizing system of notebooks with 

' Dr. Gage was instructor in physics in the English High School, Boston. 

= Caehaet, H. C, and Chute, H. N., Elcmoils of Physics, 1896; Physics for High School Students, 
1901 and 1907. 

' WooDHULL, J. F., The Teaching of Physical Science. 1910, pp. 9-11. 



166 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

"operations, obsen'ations" and "inference" headings. They are wholesale 
breeders of dishonest and superficial work. [Torrey.] A few years ago it seemed 
necessary to urge upon teachers the adoption of the laboratory methods to illus- 
trate the textbook; in not a few instances it would now seem almost necessary to 
urge the use of textbook to render intelligible the chaotic work of the laboratory. 
[Carhart and Chute.) Physics in too many of our schools ranks as a most difficult 

subject An elementary presentation of physics should begin by resuming 

what might be called the experience of the average lad of sixteen years 

The demand, therefore, is not so much for new facts, or for sheer facts of any 
kind, as for an orderly arrangement and an ability to use these facts. [Crew.] 

Chemistry followed much the same line in its development as 
physics except that laboratoiy work came in earlier and the narrow, 
technical type of work also developed earlier. Gage remarks of 
his physics text (1882) that "chemistry has been taught by the 
laboratory method for twenty years" and urges the introduction 
of laboratory method in physics. 

Two of the earlier texts agree in that they are descriptive and 
call for comparatively little experimentation. In some other 
respects they differ. Comstock's text' follows very closely the 
method of treatment found in his physics text.^ It is evidently 
intended to give a rather comprehensive knowledge of chemistry 
by means of description. Numerous cuts and drawings are pro- 
vided. There is an absence of experiments called for although not 
in the same degree as in the case of his physics. It abounds in 
definitions and explanations of chemical phenomena. 

Hooker's Chemistry' (1863) contains the following in the 
preface : 

A large proportion of the experiments can be treated with very simple 
apparatus. 

The experiments are very simple and not numerous. The 
text is primarily descriptive and makes good the claim of the author 
that it is largely a chemistry of "common things." The practical 
concrete nature of the book is shown by the topics treated as 
follows: vegetation — the seed, its growth, source of carbon in 
plants, organic food of plants, water in plants, etc.; soil — soil in 
manures, humus, how soil was originally made, different kinds of 
soils, rotation of crops, manures, volatile substances, bone dust, 
lime, gypsum, vegetable refuse; products of vegetables — vegetable 
acids, tonic acid, coloring matter, oils and fats, glycerine, soaps, 

1 CoMSTOCK, J. L., Elements oj Chemistry; Designed for the Use of Schools and Academies, 1861. 

'Cf. p. 161. 

■ TitJe-page destroyed. 



THE SCIENCES 167 

liniment, emulsion, varnish, oils, petroleum, camphor; fermenta- 
tion — fermentation in bread, how ether is obtained, vinegar, sour 
bread. 

At the close of the book is a list of questions covering the text 
and occupying about twenty-five pages. While they do not call 
for applications of knowledge gained and are simply tests upon the 
contents of the book, they clearly emphasize the chemistry of 
common things. 

Steele's book' was very similar in method of treatment to his 
work on physics.^ In the preface of the former he says: 

Unusual importance is given to that practical part of chemical knowledge 
which concerns everyday life. 

He maintains that throughout the study of chemistry a clearer 
relation should be established between the "schoolroom and the 
kitchen, farm, and shop." 

The emphasis upon laboratory practice which began about 
1880 in physics had its beginning in chemistry at an earlier date 
and its influence upon subject-matter extends over a longer period. 
The effect of this was to direct attention away from the value of 
content, from the things which "every well-informed person ought 
to know" and from its relation to "kitchen, farm, and shop" to the 
technique of laboratory work. 

This shift of emphasis is foreshadowed by some of the texts 
already cited and is shown clearly by the books published after 
1880. Greene's text' published in 1884 is rather typical of the 
books of that date. The author was a high-school teacher and the 
book no doubt fairly represents what was actually being taught in 
chemi stry. There is no suggestion in the book of relating the work 
of the classroom to vocational activities of any sort. The treat- 
ment if formal and numerous experiments are called for which 
indicate the emphasis upon laboratory work. 

Another book,* and one widely used, belongs to the same type 
of texts as the one cited above. The author says in the preface: 

It should be remembered that the object of the course laid down in this 
book is not to make chemists but to help develop sound minds and at the same 
time to awaken an interest in the subject of natural phenomena of great impor- 
tance to mankind. This book represents the ideal in the teaching of chemistry 
in that it contains a relatively large number of experiments. 

• Steele, J. Dorman, Fourteen Weeks in Chemistry, 1869. 
' Cf. p. 243. 

' Greene, Woliau H., Lessons in Chemistry, 1884. 

* Reusen, Ira, Elements of Chemistry: A Text Jor Beginners, 1887. 



168 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

In the two hundred and forty-two pages constituting the text 
proper, one hundred and thirty-two experiments are called for. 
Neither the descriptive material nor the experiments, however, 
contain any hint of the chemistry of "common things" such as was 
found in the earlier books. At the close about fifteen pages are 
devoted to questions and problems intended to supplement the 
experiments contained in the main body of the text. A comparison 
of this book with that of Hooker or Steele shows clearly the two 
periods into which chemistry instruction falls. Other texts' after 
1885 show the same emphasis and general method as Remsen's book. 
In speaking of the character of the work of physical science 
during the last years of the nineteenth and the first years of the 
twentieth century, Professor Woodhull says: 

Certainly whatever we may profess in the preface of our textboolcs, we are 
actually doing less in our schools today than we did fifty years ago to make science 
minister to the needs of our common lite. The fact that it requires a certain 
number of grams to break a piece of No. 24 brass wire is of no concern to any 
of us — not even to the bridge-builder. It would seem that laboratory teachers, 
like kindergarten folks, have been at much pains to invent "busy work."- 

3. THE EARTH SCIENCES 

Geology declined in importanc as shown by Table X and this 
decline continued as shown by courses of study after 1900. It was 
taught from the standpoint of giving a general knowledge of 
geological facts in the earlier years and little or no change in point 
of view in this particular takes place throughout the period. The 
evolutionary theory received much less consideration in the older 
books than in the later ones but this does not materially change 
the older emphasis upon knowledge for its own sake without 
reference to economic considerations and values. The prevalence 
of the aim in teaching geology manifest in the second edition of 
Dana's book' is shown in a revised edition (1897).* The older 
book consists of four parts. Part I deals very briefly with physio- 
graphic geology — size, form, and surface structure of the earth. 
Part II is devoted to kinds, structure, and stratification of rocks, 
and a "view of the animal and vegetable kingdoms." The latter 
is simply the classification of plants and animals the same as found 

^ Elist and Stoker's, Wiiliams's and Shepard's texts are examples, 
a Woodhull, J. F., The Teaching of Physical Science, 1910, p. 6. 

3 Dana. James D., .4 Text-Book on Geology Designed jor Schools and Academies, 1874. This does not 
differ essentially from the edition of 1863. 

< Dana. James D., Revised Texl-Book on Geology. 1897. Edited by William North Rice. 



THE SCIENCES 169 

in the texts in botany and zoology of that time. Part III is devoted 
to historical geology with the usual divisions of time — Archaean, 
Palezoic, etc. Part IV consists of a discussion of dynamical 
geology — the causes or origins of events in geological history such 
as power of gravitation, atmosphere, heat, water, and the like. 

The editor of the revised edition published in 1897 says in the 
preface : 

It was proposed in the plan of revision that the distinctive characteristics 
of the book should be preserved as far as possible. It was to be brought down 
to the present time as regards its facts, but it was still to express the well-known 
opinions of its author. 

He then states that a more radical revision than was at first con- 
templated was found necessary and continues as follows: 

The zoological and botanical classifications used in the former edition were 
judged to be obsolete. The endeavor has been made to substitute for them, as 
nearly as practical, the classifications which are followed in the majority of recent 
manuals on zoology and botany. It was decided that the theory of evolution 
required fuller recognition than it had received in the previous edition of this 

work or the last edition of his Manual In the present edition the bearing 

of various events in geological history upon the theory of evolution is pointed 
out in the appropriate places; and in the closing chapter which has been entirely 
rewritten the general bearing of paleontology upon evolution is discussed. 

The book contains more material than the former edition, the 
facts are brought up to date, and the evolutionary theory empha- 
sized. These represent practically the only changes noted in the 
revised edition. 

Lists of texts found in the printed courses of study show that 
Dana's books were used more than any other text during all the 
periods and more than all others in most of the periods. 

A text' occasionally mentioned in the published list of texts 
differs from the Dana texts chiefly in a discussion of the "bearings 
of geology upon religion," [17 pages] and in a brief account of 
"economical geology" [12 pages]. The most of this discussion is 
devoted to mining, one page being given to "agricultural geology." 

Other texts such as Norton's (1871) and Geikie's (1890) show 
the same general character of material and method of treatment as 
found in Dana's books. Geikie's text places rather unusual empha- 
sis upon the classification of plants and animals but presents no 
other distinguishing characteristics. 

1 Hitchcock, Edward, and HrrcHcocK, Charles H., Elementary Geology. Second E^Iition, 1867. 
"This differs from the edition of I860 chiefly by the insertion of such new numbers, summaries and special 
details in technical statement as are required by the late rapid accumulation of interesting tacts." (Preface) 



170 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Physical geography was one of the more important science sub- 
jects as shown by Table X. The number of schools ofTering it 
remained practically constant and there was no change in time 
devoted to it except as incidentally resulted from the change from 
a three-term to a two-term school year. 

The character of the subject-matter remained practically un- 
changed until near the close of the century and can be classified 
roughly under two heads. The older type of material was of the 
general information sort and the textbooks were on the order of 
compendiums of knowledge selected from several of the science 
subjects. The new standpoint in teaching the subject becomes 
evident in the very last years of the century and this resulted in a 
restriction of the subject rather closely to the earth sciences. The 
standpoint as expressed in the preface of one of the later books' 
was as follows: 

They (the earth's physical features) must not be presented apart from the 
manner in which they affect man's ways of living; attention must frequently be 
drawn to the association of human conditions with the environment by which 
they have been determined, in order to form the habit of looking at the features 
of the earth as prime factors in guiding the development of mankind. 

These two points of view then, the one supplying general informa- 
tion without any guiding aim or principle, and the other presenting 
these facts with reference to how "they elTect man's ways of living" 
are the indexes to the character of the subject-matter. 

An example of the older type of text is Mitchell's Physical 
Geography.- In the preface he says: 

In the following the v.'riter has endeavored to unfold concisely, yet in their 
completeness, the principles and facts of Physical Geography, and has sought by 
the mode of presenting them and by freshness of illustration to uphold the intrin- 
sic interest in this department of science. 

No mention is made of the relations which the subject may have 
to life upon the earth or to any particular use to which the informa- 
tion may be put. The following, quoting again from the preface, 
shows also the religious viewpoint: 

The physical phenomena of the world reveal in their harmonious action a 
unity of plan and purpose, and display in an infinite variety of ways, the Power, 
Wisdom, and Goodness of the Almighty Designer. 

The text itself is a compendium, descriptive of the various 
physical features of the earth such as rivers, oceans, plains, moun- 

^ Davis, Wflliam Morris, and Stm)ER, William Henry, Physical Geography, 1898. 
' Brickleby, John, Elements of Physical Geography, 1867. 



THE SCIENCES 171 

tains, valleys, and the like, physical phenomena such as earthquakes 
and volcanoes. Part V is devoted to meteorology and Part VI 
to geographical zoology, geographical botany, and ethnology. The 
religious point of view is not much in evidence but an occasional 
reference is made to it in the topic title "Proofs of Design." It is 
noticeable that while the author in his chapter on ethnology dis- 
cusses classification as to races, differences in anatomical structure 
and other physical features, that there is an absence of any attempt 
to relate these topics to the subject-matter of the text preceding 
this chapter. 

Guyot's text,' published a little later, is very similar to the one 
referred to above. No reference, however, is made to the religious 
phase of the subject either in the preface or the text proper. The 
same character of subject-matter is emphasized with some difference 
from the standpoint of classification. The following statement in 
the preface is a fair classification of the text itself: 

In every part of the work a strict geographical point of view has been pre- 
served. From the kindred sciences — geology, natural philosophy, meteorology — 
only such facts and principles have been borrowed as were necessary to illustrate 
geographical phenomena. In the exposition of the life system, the associations 
of plants, animals, and races of men in geographical groups, characterizing the 
great natural divisions of the globe, have been defined, and not the botanical, 
zoological, or ethological classification. 

Houston's book^ does not differ from Guyot's in any essential 
particular. The author claims in the preface to have omitted 
certain unnecessary details and to have added certain subjects 
"usually omitted in works on Physical Geography" but no striking 
illustrations are found in the book either of omissions or additions. 
"Electrical and optical phenomena" receive some attention and 
"cultivated plants" is stressed a little more than in the other texts 
cited above, but this text does not differ essentially from them. 

Appleton's Physical Geography^ was published in 1887. This 
book is a compendium written by several authors. Ten are named 
on the title-page and the contributions of others acknowledged in 
the preface. This would indicate that it was a book prepared by 
specialists in the various subjects and fields. The reason given 
for the "new and original plan" is stated in the preface as follows: 

As Physical Geography is a singularly comprehensive science, requiring 
application from a great variety of cognate sciences, it is presumable that no one 

' GtrvoT, Arnold, Physical Geography, 1873. 

3 Houston, Edwin J., The Elements of Physical Geography, 1875. 

> Appleton's Physical Geography; Prepared on a New and Original Plan, 1887. 



172 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

author possesses the depth or variety of knowledge essential to the preparation 
of a successful textbook on the subject, especially in view of the important ad- 
vances recently made in many diverse fields of inquiry through the researches of 
specialists. 

Special features of the book are referred to as follows: 

The most recent views in regard to vulcanology and earthquakes are pre- 
sented with illustration to the present year. The theory of ocean currents is 

clearly unfolded in the light of the Litest discoveries The general motions 

of the atmosphere are made plain by the application of Terrel's Law; while the 
perplexities environing the consideration of cyclonic storms are more thoroughly 
disentangled than in other American school books. The chapters devoted to 
geology, botany, zoology, and ethnology will be found as fascinating as they 
are instructive.' 

The book claims scientific accuracy and thoroughness of treatment 
of the various subjects. No point of view is presented except that 
of knowledge for its own sake and no applications attempted. 

The text by Davis and Snyder, already referred to, presents a 
new point of view in the teaching of physical geography. Quoting 
further from the preface: 

Extraneous subjects, however interesting or important in themselves, such 
as the non-geographical elements of astronomy, the principles of physics, and 
the divisions of geological time, are carefully excluded. 

An analysis of the book under such headings as agriculture, forests 
animals, plants, and the like, shows that considerable attention is 
devoted to these subjects and the point of view controls as stated 
in the preface. The older books discussed in detail the actual 
distribution of animals and plants. This text shows how physical 
conditions affect such distributions. The student is given the 
point of view at the outset by means of an introduction the chapter 
title being "The Relation of Man to the Earth." The following 
are other chapter titles indicating the character of the text, "The 
Relation of Man to the Climate;" "The Geographical Control of 
Population;" "The Lifelike Behavior of Rivers." 

The emphasis throughout the book is upon physical conditions 
and phenomena in their relation to the earth as the home of man. 
A comparison of this book with Guyot's or Appleton's reveals 
clearly the change in point of view and character of subject-matter. 
Since this book did not come into use until the very last years of 

' Appleton's Physical CeogTaphy Prepared on a Nrw and Original Plan, 1887. 



THE SCIENCES 173 

the century, the other books cited are the ones that determined 
almost exclusively the character of instruction in physical geog- 
raphy. From the standpoint of work actually done in the 
schools, texts, of which Davis' and Snyder's book is an example, 
belong to the first years of the present century. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE SOCIAL STUDIES 

Under this general head are inchided history, civics, and poHtical 
economy. Table XIX shows that there was an increase of a little 
more than a year in the time devoted to this field from 1860 to 
1900. This increase was practically all given to history. The time 
devoted to civics and economics remained practically unchanged, 
the only change in these subjects being due to the fact that an 
occasional school devoted a whole year to one or the other and that 
the change from a three-term to a two-term plan had a tendency 
to increase the time from one-third year to one-half year. It will 
be seen also by reference to Table XIX that the maximum time 
doubled and that the minimum increased from one-third to one year. 

1. HISTORY 

European history, both from the standpoint of the number of 
schools offering it and also in the amount of time devoted to it, 
received a larger share of attention than did United States history. 
The character of the subject-matter in the former did not undergo 
very important changes. Different types of subject-matter are 
discoverable. Continental history was taught under various 
titles, such as ancient, medieval, modern, general, universal, and 
outlines of history. These titles, however, are not accurate des- 
criptions of the character of material emphasized. As a matter 
of fact, ancient history received an undue proportion of attention 
regardless of the title of the textbook, and an examination of texts 
leads one to believe that the titles of books was the determining 
factor in giving titles to the courses. The texts also furnish prac- 
tically the only reliable source of information concerning the 
character of subject-matter. 

As pointed out above, ancient history received an undue amount 
of attention throughout the entire period. There was an occa- 
sional exception to this in a textbook, but on the whole the above 
statement holds true. Whatever particular emphasis the author 
may have employed, the matter dealt largely with political history, 
with a good deal of stress upon those periods in which the countries 
were engaged in war. Comparatively little attention was given to 

174 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 175 

the economic or social life of the people, and education was almost 
entirely ignored. 

One of the earlier books' used is characteristic of the texts of 
that date. A chronological table and index occupies thirty-two 
pages in the front part of the book, and on examining this, one is 
impressed by the emphasis placed upon wars and events directly 
connected with them. The text itself shows this same emphasis. 
About one-half of this book is devoted to what the author calls 
"Ancient and Middle History," and the balance to the "Modern 
Period." At the bottom of each page is given a list of questions 
on the text. These questions reveal clearly the emphasis upon 
political and military history in all the periods treated. 

Another text- which was still in use after 1860, as shown by the 
printed lists of textbooks, shows the same emphasis as Willard's 
upon the political and military historj'. This book devotes three 
hundred and seventy-four pages to the history of the Asiatic 
countries and the remainder to Greece and Rome. 

As stated above, history material does not seem to have been 
standardized, as shown by the textbooks. Some of these show 
that the authors were conscious of the fact that material other than 
accounts of political and military events should be included and 
incorporated in their books. One of these was the text' by William 
Swinton. Of the 487 pages, 305 are devoted to the "History of the 
World Preceding the Fifteenth Centurj'," 67 pages of this being 
given to the Asiatic peoples and the balance to European. The 
emphasis in this book is clearly upon political and military' affairs, 
but toward the close he devotes some attention to what he calls 
"The Progress of Civilization," occupying about 10 pages. This 
consists chiefly of the names of philosophers and scientists of the 
eighteenth century. Then at the very close of the book he gives 
five pages to great names of the nineteenth century. His chrono- 
logical method of treatment is shown by the analytic synopses for 
reviews, which are provided at the close of the sections devoted to 
each of the periods. This book was widely used, as shown by the 
lists of textbooks published in school reports. 

• WiLLARD, Emma, Universal History: Divided intiy Three Periods, Aru:ient, Miidle and Modern, 
1865. 

' Goodrich. S. G., Complete History from the Creation to the Fall of Rome, 1848. 

•Swinton, William. Outlines of the World's History, Ancient, Medieval and Modern with Special 
Relation to the History of Civilization and Progress of Mankind, 1874. 



176 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Another book' of this same general type treats quite exclusively 
political and military events. This text, as well as the others above 
cited, seems to lack any point of view other than the presentation 
of a great array of events chronologically arranged. 

Barnes's General History- is rather an exception to the books of 
that date and marks a beginning of a movement in history-teaching 
receiving considerable attention at the present time. There is an 
agreement with other texts from the standpoint of its emphasis 
upon ancient history, devoting more than one-half of the book to 
this period. It differs in that considerable attention is devoted to 
what the author calls "Civilization, Manners and Customs." 
Under the former the following are discussed : society, the army, 
education, literature, libraries and writing materials, monuments 
and art; under the latter: religion, games and festivals, marriage, 
burial and dress. A total of 112 pages are devoted to "civiliza- 
tion," and 60 pages to "manners and customs." Of the 172 pages 
devoted to this kind of material, 132 pages are taken up with an 
account of the civilization, manners, and customs of the ancient 
peoples, only 40 pages being devoted to the medieval and modern 
periods. The book, however, does not contain less material of the 
political and military sort. It was a larger book than was in 
common use at that time and this humanized material was simply 
added. 

A protest against this sort of material is voiced in the preface 
of Anderson's General History.^ This was not a protest against 
the text above cited since the two books came out almost simul- 
taneously, but it is very likely that the former text was issued to 
meet a popular demand. The Anderson text was also issued in two 
volumes, one devoted to ancient history and the other to medieval 
and modern periods. In the preface to the General History he says: 

There has been for some time a growing tendency in the public mind to study 
rather those things that directly concern the life of the people as such, than the 
facts of National or Political History. Certainly this department of knowledge 
has a most fascinating interest: but it must be borne in mind that the greater 
movements of mankind are connected rather with the nation, than their social 
history: and hence it is a false system that makes the former subordinate to the 

1 QuACKENBOs, JoHN D., ItluslraU<l Scfiool History nj the World Jrom the Earliest Ages to the Present 
Time: Accompanied wth Numerous Maps and Ensravin^s^ 1876. 

2 Barnes's History. A BrieJ History of Ike Medieval and Modern Peoples with Some Accounts of Their 
Movements^ Institutions, Arts, Manners and Customs. 

8 .Anderson, John J., Manual of General History with Particular Attention to Ancient and Modern 
Civilization: With Numerous Engravings and Maps for Use in Colleges, High Schools, .Academies, etc., 1882. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 177 

latter The old masters of education, though more severe than those of 

the present time in their imposition of tasks, are less anxious to consult the 
uncultured palates of their pupils. Probably on that account they imparted 
more solid and enduring accomplishments. The present work while giving a 
brief sketch to the history of every nation both Ancient and Modern, aims also 
to afford in a pleasing and instructive style all the information needed by the 
young students. In regard to social peculiarities of the people and their progress 
in each department of civilization, care has been exercised to keep this branch 
inside of its just limits. 

The book devotes some attention to what he calls "civilization" 
particularly of the ancient period. Practically no attention is 
devoted to this topic in modern times. The text as a whole makes 
good the contention of the author cited above in the preface. It is 
essentially a political and military history. 

A book' published in 1885 is very different in method of treat- 
ment than the other high-school texts of that time. It is in fact a 
source book quoting very extensively from historical sources. The 
author says in the preface: 

This book is not a history, but a collection of historical materials: it contains 
just the sort of things historians must deal with when they want to describe or 
judge any period of history, and just the kind of things, moreover, which we 
Americans must constantly attend to. In Greek History it gives bare chronology 
of deeds, pictures of buildings and statues, extracts from speeches, laws and poems. 
From these materials you must form your own judgment of the Greeks, discover 
their style of thinking, acting, living, feeling; you must in short imagine you 
yourself there, too, writing a Greek History, or that you are a Greek citizen called 
upon to judge the life about you. This helps you in this advantage, inserted in 
the midst of material such questions and problems which the Historian or citizen 
must always be asking himself, or rather must always be putting to the laws, 
events, poetry and ruins which he studies, whether they belong to peoples and 
times far away or near at hand. In this way you can learn to judge and interpret 
what you see before you in your own country and help to make of America that 
which she may become. 

This book represents no point of view apparently which would 
be of value to a high-school teacher or a high-school student. In 
fact it is primarily a collection of historical matter and contains 
"just the sort of things which historians deal with." 

Quotations from sources are abundant. For example, under 
the general title "Studies on the Athenian Leadership" several 
pages are devoted to stories and extracts illustrative of the period. 
Some of these quotations are of some length as "Character of Peri- 
cles" [Plutarch], "Funeral Speech of Pericles over the First Dead 

' Sheldon. Marv D., Studies in Central History, 1885. 



178 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

in the Peloponnesian War" [Thucydides], and "The Defense and 
Death of Socrates" [Plato]. A large number of "Short Quotations 
from the Tragedians" are given. At the close of these is found a 
summary of the "Political and Military and Naval Events." This 
method of treatment is characteristic of the entire book. The 
author gives some interpretations and conclusions, but it is not a 
textbook in the usual sense. It was in all probability an attempt 
to encourage the source method, sometimes called laboratory 
method, in history, which was being advocated in certain quarters 
at that time. It is, however, the only book of its kind that is 
listed among the textbooks used in the high school as shown by the 
printed lists found in the courses of study, and its method of treat- 
ment was not adopted by other writers of textbooks. 

Myers's texts in European history came into use about 1885, 
and during the period 1891-95 were used in more high schools than 
any other single text as shown by lists of textbooks published in 
the school reports. After 1895 they were used more than all other 
texts combined. The General History,^ after its publication, 
largely displaced the earlier works by the same author as indicated 
by the published lists referred to above. The printed courses of 
study also show the prevalence of the term "General History" as 
revealed by Tables VII and VIII. So far as the Myers' texts are 
concerned, however, the subject-matter is not materially changed 
by a change of title. In the preface of the General History the 
author says: 

This volume is based upon my Ancient History and Medieval and Modern 
History. In some instances I have changed the perspective and the proportions 
of the narrative, but in the main, the book is constructed upon the same lines as 
those drawn for the earlier work. 

The influence of the point of view controlling in Willard's, Swinton's, 
and Anderson's texts is evident in this book as shown by the empha- 
sis upon political and military history. On the other hand, the 
material against which the author of the latter protests is given 
some attention. It is noticeable, too, that this does not appear to 
have been done as an afterthought or merely in response to a popu- 
lar demand. The subject-matter dealing with the social life, art, 
commerce, religion, language, etc., of the various peoples is woven 
into the story in such a way as to make it an integral part of it. 

'Myers, P, V. N., A General History Jar Biglt Schools and Colleges, 1889. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 179 

The proportion of space devoted to this sort of material is not 
large, although during the Greek period it received considerable 
attention. One hundred and thirty-four pages are devoted to the 
history of Greece and of these, forty-five pages are given to archi- 
tecture, sculpture, painting, literature, philosophy, science, and 
social life. Under the last topic such things as education, banquets, 
occupation, and slavery are discussed. Little detail, however, is 
given, as indicated by the number of general topics considered. 
The chapter devoted to Greek philosophy and science consists chiefly 
of biographies of noted men. Much less space relatively is given, 
however, to those phases of life among the Romans, and still less 
in succeeding periods. A short account is given of the Revival of 
Learning and a brief notice is made of the literature of the Eliza- 
bethan Era. The book belongs to the same class as the Barnes and 
Anderson texts, and like them, the amount of subject-matter 
devoted to political and military history is not decreased as com- 
pared with texts in use previous to 1880. The movement toward 
more emphasis upon the social, industrial, and commercial aspects 
of history gained but little momentum, and the development of 
this phase of history-teaching belongs to the period lying beyond 
the close of the nineteenth century. 

The subject-matter of United States history and the changes 
occurring therein need but brief attention. This subject, like 
arithmetic, grammar, and physiology, was taught in the upper 
grades and rural schools as well as in the high schools. It was in 
fact primarily a grade subject, and textbooks of this type, as shown 
by the published lists of texts, were used almost exclusively in the 
high schools. 

Table XX shows that it was a short-time subject and that the 
time devoted to it remained practically unchanged. Tables II-IX, 
inclusive, indicate that it increased somewhat in importance from 
the standpoint of the number of schools offering it. It remained, 
however, relatively unimportant, European history receiving far 
more consideration. 

One of the characteristics possessed in common by the textbooks 
in United States historj' is the relatively larger amount of attention 
devoted to wars. The earlier books show this and texts published 
after 1860 reveal the influence of the Civil War in this particular. 
Willard's' text devotes about one-fourth the entire space to an 

1 WiLLARD, EuMA, Abridged History oj the United States, 185,?. New and enlarged edition. First 
edition published in 1849. 



180 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

account of the Revolutionary War and more than twenty pages 
to the War of 1812. About forty pages are devoted to the Mexican 
War and the Indian and Colonial Wars receive a large share of 
attention. Political history occupies the remainder of the book 
almost to the entire exclusion of everything else, particularly after 
the beginning of the national period. 

Wilson's book' was very similar in contents and method of 
treatment. It was a larger book than Willard's, the additional 
pages being devoted to an account of the Civil War. These books 
are mentioned more frequently than any others in the published 
lists prior to 1870. 

The book most used after this date to 1890 was Barnes's Brief 
History of the United States.- The revised edition (1880) contained 
three hundred and two pages and of these about one hundred and 
twenty were devoted to the Revolutionary, Mexican, and Civil 
Wars. In addition to this, detailed accounts are given of Indian 
fighting and Indian Wars. As in the te.xts above cited, political 
history is stressed to the neglect of social and industrial affairs. 
This book is, however, a departure in one particular — the inclusion 
in footnotes of a good deal of material tending to throw light upon 
and add interest to the subject-matter of the text proper. In 
enumerating the "general methods of teaching this study" the 
author states: 

To furnish copious notes containing collateral facts, minor events, sketches 
of the lives of presidents and noted men, and especially those anecdotes of heroism 
and devotion that so brighten the record of our national growth.' 

There is also introduced into the body of the text a little subject- 
matter bearing upon the daily life of the people bearing the title, 
"Condition of the Colonies." This occupies seven pages and such 
topics as the laws regulating the alTairs of private life, manners and 
customs, and education are discussed. This material is all in fine 
print similar to the footnotes and deals only with colonial life. 

The Barnes text and Montgomery's "Leading Facts of History 
Series"^ were used more than all other books^ combined after 1870. 

I Wilson, Marcius, History of the United States from the Earliest Discoveries to the Close of the Great 
Rebellion in 1S65. Containing also the Constitution of the United Stales with Explanatory Notes and Ques- 
tions, 1866. 

' It was published 6rst in 1871 and revised in 1879 and 1880. 

' Ibid., Preface. 

• Montgomery, D. H., The Student's American History, 1897. 

s The Leading Facts of A merican History, a Grammar School text, was published a few years previous 
to the student's edition. Other texts in use did not differ essentially from Barnes's and Montgomery's. 
Some of them are: Eggleston, Edward, A History of the United States and Its People, 1888; Scott, 
David B., A School History of the United States (Harper's School History), 1870; Scudder, Horace E., 
A New History of the United Stales, 1897; Tbalheimer, M. E., An Eclectic History of the United States, 
1881. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 181 

The students' edition is the only text named in the published 
lists intended primarily for high-school use. It differs from the 
smaller book' only in the following particulars: 

It is much fuller in its treatment of political and constitutional history, and 
of the chief events bearing upon the development of the nation. It quotes the 
statements of public men, original documents, and authorities, in order that the 
historj' of our country may speak for itself on the points of greatest interest to 
the student and the teacher.^ 

This book contains none of the "anecdotes of heroism and devotion" 
found in the Barnes text and only an occasional reference to indus- 
trial or social life. 

The books referred to above show clearly that the political and 
constitutional point of view controlled in history-teaching to the 
very close of the century. The slight attention given after 1870 
to social and industrial life does not indicate any essential change 
in aim, or materially change the character of the subject-matter. 

2. CIVICS 

The term civics is a recent one. Politics, political philosophy, 
constitution, science of government, and civil government were 
the more common terms employed throughout the most of the 
period. It has already been shown that the subject increased some- 
what in importance from the standpoint of the number of schools 
offering it and that the average amount of time devoted to it 
remained practically the same. The only change affecting the 
latter being the shift from a three-term to a two-semester plan. 
This, of course, eliminated the practice of devoting one-third of a 
year to a subject and substituted one-half year. This, however, 
was only incidental and does not represent an increase of importance 
attached to the subject. 

Instruction in civics falls into two fairly well-defined periods. 
The first of these is characterized by an emphasis upon the formal, 
theoretical aspect of the subject. The work during the first period 
consisted largely of interpretations of constitutions, federal and 
state, and the texts used were scarcely more than analyses. Prac- 
tically nothing was done to give pupils a knowledge of government 
in its practical workings, or to teach the duties of citizens except 
in an abstract, formal way. Titles of some of the early books are 

1 Montgomery. D. H., The Students American History, 1879. 
'Ibid. 



182 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

fair indexes of the contents and method of treatment. The title 
of one of these books,' The Science of Government, is an illustration. 
The author in the preface quotes Professor F. D. Huntington in an 
address before the Massachusetts legislature as follows: 

It is absurd that pupils should go through their whole term of preparation 
for life committing the rules of grammar and rules of arithmetic, to the total 
neglect of the principles of legislation under which they are to live or to the facts 
of the country to which they belong, and of the constitution of their liberties. 

He adds he would have every young person 

carefully and conscientiously taught those distinctive ideas which constitute the 
substance of our Constitution, and which determine the policy of our politics 
.... and to this end there ought forthwith to be introduced in our schools a 
simple and comprehensive manual, whereby the needed tuition should be planted 
at that early period. 

The book is in fact an analysis and interpretation of the federal 
constitution. Enough historical material is introduced to furnish 
somewhat of a background. One chapter is devoted to the institu- 
tions of the several states. This chapter, however, contains little 
more than information concerning the date of adoption of these 
constitutions, then some comment upon the distribution of powers 
among the several departments of government, and the scattered, 
unconnected facts concerning the length of residence required to 
be a voter, meager details of judicial systems, and the like. Another 
chapter is devoted to international law, and the final chapter to a 
brief discussion of different kinds of law defined, as constitutional, 
international, municipal, statute, and common law. 

Townsend's A7ialysis of Civil Government- came into use at about 
the same time as the book cited above. The following statement 
is found in the preface. 

The Analytic Method of this work furnishes its first claim of superiority over 
others as a textbook on Civil Government. The Constitution of the United 
States is our fundamental law. To understand this law is to understand the 
whole theory: and to analyze this is to analyze the entire American System. 
The proper aim therefore of this work is to present analytically the subject of 

Civil Government as administered in this country In the tabular 

arrangement in the sections and clauses of the Constitution nothing is omitted 
or added, and as far as possible the precise language of that document is retained. 

The introduction is written to the book by Rev. James E. Lapham, 
in which he says in part: 

He has drawn the materials from his work from original sources and from 
commentaries and from classic excellence. We see traces of interminable rum- 

* Alden, Joseph, The Science oj Governmrnl in Connection wilh American Institutions, 1866. 
' TowNSEND, COLVIN, Analysis oj Ciiil Government, 1868. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 183 

magings of The Madison Papers, the Federalist, Elliott's Debates, Story and 
Rawle on the Constitution, Kent's and Blackstone's Commentaries, as well as 
the most patient learnings from official statistical and chronological tables. 

This is one of the books at least in which promises made in the 
preface are rigorously kept. The contents of the book itself con- 
stitute an analysis of the constitution, and the method of treatment 
further emphasizes that point of view. The division into heads 
and subheads and arrangement of material on the page all add in 
bringing before the student in very clear outline the analytical 
method of treatment. In the comments that are made it is evident 
that the statement made in the introduction concerning the ma- 
terials from commentaries and from classic excellences, are true. 
The author, as the title-page indicates, was a lawyer, and the 
lawyer's point of view is evident throughout the book. A glossary 
is provided at the close, containing a long list of definitions of legal 
terms. As a matter of fact this book was not a pioneer in the field 
as an examination of Alden's text above referred to will show. It 
simply placed further emphasis upon the analytical method of 
treating the constitution of the United States. Another book of 
this same general type was Andrews's Mantuil of the Constitution } 
The author indicates in the preface the same point of view as the 
other books just described contained, as the following will show: 

The proper instruction of students in the important subject of Civil Govern- 
ment, a clearer exposition of the great principles of the Constitution, is met with 
a summary of the legislative Provisions in which they have been embodied. 

As has been said, this book belongs to the same class as those 
referred to above, but differs in two particulars. In the first place, 
the method is not so severely analytical, the treatment being in 
descriptive form, and, as he indicates in the preface, an explanation 
is given to the "legislative provisions," in which the principles of 
the constitution have been embodied. In the second place, the 
book contains some historical information which has the constitu- 
tion as a background. For example, in the discussion of the 
executive department, he gives a list of the names of the presidents 
up to date. This also was followed by lists of the names of the 
secretaries of the various executive departments. He devotes a 
short chapter to state governments, but this information is very 
much condensed and fragmentary. In the appendix he^ gives in 

' Andrews, Israel Warren, Manual of tht Constitution of the United States, 1874, 



184 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

full the Articles of Confederation, the Declaration of Independence, 
the Ordinance of 1787, and the Federal Constitution. 

The type of instruction represented by these books above cited 
certainly continued to about 1885 or a little after. There is, how- 
ever, some sign of change of point of view in the textbooks pub- 
lished a little before 1880. This formal type of instruction however 
prevailed throughout the most of the period through the use of the 
older type of books in many schools. 

The second period is marked by an emphasis upon state and 
local government, and while the legal point of view is the prevailing 
one, the emphasis upon constitutions and the analytical method 
of treatment no longer completely dominates. One of the books 
which represents a short step in advance in this particular was 
Martin's Civil Government.'^ This text was in no sense a radical 
departure since the organization and method of treatment reveals 
the predominance of the old ideal in teaching civil government. 
There was, however, a tendency manifested to give more attention 
to a discussion of the functions of government and less to mere 
constitutional and legal principles, and also to give a place, although 
a very subordinate one, to state and local governments. 

Two books^ came into use after 1885 that represent the new 
point of view — viz., emphasis upon the function of government 
and more attention to the smaller units of government. McCleary's 
text reverses the accustomed order of treatment in that it begins 
with a discussion, covering about sixty pages, of local forms and 
functions of government. The author takes up the town, village, 
city, and county. Another feature of this book is the introduction 
of a brief discussion of commercial law. This subject occupies 
twenty pages. These two features distinguish this book very 
clearly from the texts published before 1885. The balance of the 
book, however, is devoted largely to the constitutional type of 
material and really belongs to the old order of textbooks. In the 
prefacethe author says: 

The Constitution of the United States, not a mere abstract of it but a careful 
study of the te.\t, is properly given much space but is not allowed a monopoly 
of it. 

It is perhaps not allowed a monoply but certainly receives a large 
share of attention. 

1 Martin, George H., A Text-Book on Civil Government. 1875. 

^ McCleary, J. F., Studies in Civics, 18S8 aad Dole, Charles F., Tlie American Citizen, 1891. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 185 

In Dole's book a new note is sounded in the preface as follows: 

There seems to be a growing demand for the more adequate teaching of 
morals in the schools, especially with reference to the making of good citizens. 
But it is difficult to teach morals directly or apirt from the concrete subjects 
about which moral questions grow. Neither can sound morals be taught at all 
without a touch of enthusiasm. 

We have, however, in the great and interesting subjects of the conduct of 
governments, business and society precisely the kind of material to furnish us 
indirectly with innumerable examples. The consideration of the public good, 
the welfare of the nation, or the interests of mankind, lies in the very region where 
patriotic emotion and moral enthusiasm are most naturally kindled. 

He says further: 

Every intelligent boy or girl, indeed, may be presumed to wish to know the 
facts about the government of our country and our social institutions. The 
object of this book, however, is not merely to state these facts, but also to illus- 
trate the moral principles that underlie the life of civilized man It will 

be obvious to the intelligent teacher that the kind of study which this book is 
designed to serve must not be made mere task work. The main hope of its useful- 
ness is by awakening the interest of students and stimulating them to think and 
talk about the various subjects considered. 

The book is a radical departure from the books that preceded 
it and represents a very different point of view and emphasis, as 
shown by the quotations from the preface, and the text itself fulfils 
the promise of the preface. It is divided into five parts, and each 
part presents the rights and duties of citizenship from a particular 
angle. Part I deals in general with the "Beginning of Citizenship." 
The chapters deal with the family, the school, the playground, 
clubs and debating societies, the principles that bind men together, 
the different duties that men owe each other and the like. Part II 
deals with "The Citizen and the Government; or the Rights and 
Duties of Citizens." Topics discussed in the several chapters are 
the purpose and forms of government, local government, cities 
and their government, the machinery of government, the judicial 
branch of the government, the treasury and the taxes, the school 
system, voting, and so on. Part III deals with "Economic Duties; 
or the Rights and Duties of Business and Money." Under this 
general head some of the topics discussed are as follows: wealth, 
its nature, conditions of, to whom it belongs, honest money, labor 
and competition, the grievances of the poor. Part IV takes up 
"Social Rights and Duties; or the Duties of Men as they Live 
Together in Society." Under this are discussed the rights and 
duties of neighbors, the treatment of crime (not from a legal but a 



186 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

social point of view), how to help the poor, and the problem of 
temperance. Part V is devoted to "International Duties; or the 
Rights and Duties of Nations." This general topic is divided into 
sub-international law and how it grows, the rights of nations, the 
duties of nations, and war, arbitration, and patriotism. 

The book is written in simple language. The style is attractive, 
and in both content and method of treatment is suited to the 
interests and abilities of high-school students. 

A book' published just at the opening of the present century, 
while not belonging strictly to the period covered by our study, 
shows the influence of the point of view so clearly revealed in the 
book just discussed. This text reveals something of the old legis- 
lative viewpoint; it represents nothing of the constitutional mode 
of treatment, and deals largely with the concrete relationships of 
the people as these relate to keeping order, making laws, providing 
schools, maintaining roads, transportation and distribution of mail, 
collection and spending taxes and the like. 

In view of the textbooks used quite exclusively up to 1890 and 
the persistence of some of these until 1900, it is clear that the 
civics teaching was entirely dominated by the legislative point of 
view until the former date, and that the influence of this was felt 
to the very close of the century. A new order of things, however, 
had been initiated to be worked out more completely in the early 
years of the present century. 

3. ECONOMICS 

Economics, or political economy, has not held as important a 
place in the high-school curriculum as civics. This is clearly shown 
by Tables II-IX and also by Table X. The increase of importance 
from the standpoint of the number of schools offering it was con- 
siderable as shown by Table X. The time devoted to it remained 
practically constant, the only change of any consequence being due 
to a slight increase brought about by a change from the three-term 
to the two-term plan of organization. 

The teaching of the subjects falls into two periods not very well 
defined in point of time. The first is marked by an emphasis upon 
principles or the philosophical aspect of the subject. Wayland's 
text,' although published nearly twenty years before the beginning 
of the period covered by this study, was still in use as late as 1875. 

■ Claek, S. T., The Government— W hat II Is and What II Does, 1902 
' Wayland, Francis, The Elements of Political Economy, 1841. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 187 

In fact, it was the only text mentioned previous to 1870 in the lists 
of texts examined. In the preface of the edition cited the author 
says: 

When the author's attention was first directed to the Science of Political 
Economy, he was struck with the simplicity of its principles, the extent of its 
generalizations and the readiness with which its facts seemed capable of being 
brought into natural and methodical arrangement. 

The text bears abundant evidence that the above quotations repre- 
sent the controlling point of view. It is a discussion of principles 
which are of the abstract sort, the generalizations are based upon 
abstractions, and the treatment is methodical although the method 
was evidently borrowed from the field of philosophy of that time. 
He says in the preface : 

The principles of Political Economy are so closely analogous to those of 
Moral Philosophy that almost every question in the one may be argued on the 
grounds belonging in the other. He has not, however, thought it proper in 
general to intermingle them, but has argued economical questions on merely 
economical grounds. 

In spite of the promise made in the last sentence, the method of 
treatment smacks of the philosophical point of view. Political 
philosophy certainly, if not moral philosophy, entered into not only 
the method of treatment, but also the contents. The book contains 
"in substance the Lectures on Political Economy which have been 
delivered for some years past to the Senior class in Brown Univer- 
sity." This will indicate the method, treatment, and also the 
degree of difficulty which high-school students would encounter in 
an attempt to master it. 

Another text' which was evidently not written specifically for 
high-school students was Champlin's Political Economy. In the 
preface the author states : 

It is prepared for "schools" as well as "colleges" because the author believes 
that a science so practical and essential to all classes of society should be more 
generally studied in our schools. There is nothing in the science above the 
comprehension and mastery of the average scholars in our academies and high 
schools At the same time, it is hoped that they will not be found inade- 
quate to the wants of college classes. 

The book is more modern than Wayland's in that it contains 
practically none of the material belonging more strictly to political 
science, and there is given to the subject a more distinctive eco- 

i Champlin, J. F., Lessons in Political Economy, Designed as a Basis for Instruction in lltat Science in 
Schools and Colleges, 1868. 



188 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

nomic emphasis throughout the text. It, however, is very similar 
to the older book in discussing almost wholly abstract principles 
and in its formal descriptive style. The lack of concreteness is 
marked, and this was no doubt intended as indicated by the follow- 
ing quotation from the preface: 

It is believed that they (the lessons) contain all the fundamental principles 
of the science, and all indeed that are required in a general course of education. 
Subordinate principles and details can be added by the teacher; but if the princi- 
ples here presented are mastered, the student will have a competent knowledge 
of the science for all ordinary purposes. 

The influence of Wayland's point of view and of the text itself 
is revealed by a book published in 1878. ^ On the front cover of the 
book are the words, Wayland Series Political Economy, Wayland — 
Chapin and in the preface the following reference is made to the 
author of the older book : 

His effort was attended with remarkable success and no other textbook on 
the subject has gained such general acceptance and been so extensively and con- 
tinuously read. 

After referring to the fact that "many practical problems of political 
economy have come to be studied in a new light" Chapin says: 

While these things have caused little change in the real elements of the 
science as presented by our author they demand that as a text-book of instruction 
adapted to our times, his work should be very considerably modified.' 

This review in part consists of new material such as gold and silver 
and the double standard, politics, and the enlargement of the dis- 
cussion of credit in its various forms, and railway corporations. 
The subjects of free trade and protection receive extended con- 
sideration, and banks and currency are treated in detail. In 
method of treatment, however, and to a considerable extent in 
content, the books are much alike. 

Walker's text^ marks somewhat of a transition in that it devotes 
about a hundred pages to "Some Applications of Economic Princi- 
ples," while the subtopics under this general head are similar to 
those treated in the older books. The application of the principles 
is practical and concrete. The failure to distinguish between the 
need of college and high-school students is not recognized, as is 
shown by the following statements in the preface : 

This work has been abridged from the third edition of my Manual of Political 
Economy published in 1883. The object in view has been to present a text-book 

• Wayland, Francis, The Elements oj Political Economy. Recast by Aaron L. Chapin, 1878. 

1 Ibid. 

' Walker, Francis A., Political Economy {Briefer Course), 1884. 



THE SOCIAL STUDIES 189 

adapted to use in colleges and academies where but one term is devoted to the 
study of Political Economy. 

Later The Elements of Political Economy^ by the same author was 
issued. This book was little more than an abridgment of his 
Political Economy and was widely used in the high schools. These 
books really marked the transition from the old to the new point 
of view, and other texts such as Bullock's^ made the transition 
complete. 

The following quotation from the preface of the Bullock text 
represents the point of view: 

This work is designed for an introductory text -book of Economic Science. 
The first three chapters aim to familiarize the student with an orderly treatment 
with some leading facts of the Economic history of the United States before the 
study of Economic theory is commenced. Throughout the book economic 
principles are discussed with special reference to American conditions and their 
workings are illustrated by frequent allusions to American experience. 

The historical background, dealing with the facts of Economic 
History and the illustration of principles by "frequent allusions to 
American experience," marks the complete transition from the 
formal and theoretical to the concrete and scientific method of 
treatment. The emphasis which the author places upon money 
and credit, and also his concrete method of treatment, indicate 
clearly the interest manifested in free silver issue of that time. 
His treatment of monopolies, socialism, the economic function of 
government, and the like, further illustrate the practical point of 
view and the changes which had then taken place in the subject- 
matter of political economy. 

* Walker, Francis A., The Elements of Political Economy, 1884. 

2 Bullock, Charles Jesse, Introduction to the Study of Economics, 1897. 



CHAPTER XIII 

FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 

1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE 

No changes of importance occurred in the teaching of foreign 
languages so far as subject-matter is concerned. The amount of 
material offered evidently remained about the same except as 
affected by increase of time devoted to it. Even this increase in 
time did not mean a proportional increase in amount of material. 
For example, in the case of Latin the earlier three-year courses 
appear to have covered approximately the same ground as the 
later four-year courses. This is shown by comparing the data in 
Table A with that of succeeding tables. The earlier practice of 
requiring but three subjects to be carried by the student instead of 
the requirement of four subjects in the later years would account 
for doing the same amount of work in any subject in a shorter time. 

It is also evident that there were no important changes in the 
character of the subject-matter taught in any of the foreign lan- 
guages. The grammatical method of teaching prevailed prac- 
tically without exception as shown by the textbooks used. The 
technique of teaching particularly in the ancient languages had 
been worked out in the older types of schools and both method and 
subject-matter were taken over by the high schools. The modern 
languages seem to have been inherited in the same way. At any 
rate, the same method in teaching and the same character of sub- 
ject-matter was emphasized. It has already been pointed out in 
Chapter ii the extent to which the grammatical method prevailed 
in the teaching of English. Its effect upon the teaching of modern 
language was even more marked. 

Greek is almost negligible so far as the number of schools 
offering it are concerned at the close of the period. The amount 
of subject-matter offered in the few schools that still taught it 
remained the same as in 1860 and there is no evidence of even the 
slightest change in the character of material. The Grammar and 
Reader,^ the Anabasis, and the Iliad made up the course. No other 
subject-matter is mentioned in the printed courses of study. 

1 Usually Goodwin's text. 

190 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 191 

The history of Latin is very similar to that of Greek. The 
First-Book, Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil constituted the work except 
for minor modifications.' In the early years an occasional school 
ofTered Sallust, Nepos, and Horace, but this practice was not 
general and soon ceased entirely. The fixed order was a first-year 
book, followed by Caesar, and this usually by Cicero and Virgil in 
the order named. Occasionally Virgil would precede Cicero as 
shown by the courses of study. So far as the work in Latin, after 
the first year is concerned, the courses of study show conclusively 
that no change in the character of subject-matter took place. 

It remains then to consider only the work of the first year and 
the textbooks furnish a reliable source of information. The books 
from first to last consist chiefly of grammar and exercises for use 
in drill. One of the noticeable things about these exercises is the 
large amount of material selected from Caesar's Commentaries on 
the Gallic War. The reason for this no doubt was that it furnished 
excellent material for grammatical drill and also afforded specific 
preparation for the work of the second year. One of the older 
reading books- shows this same emphasis upon Caesar. Another 
book' published about ten years later devotes twenty-two pages of 
the seventy-one pages (exclusive of notes, vocabularies, etc.) to the 
Helvetian War. In addition to this, extracts from the commen- 
taries are abundant. 

Leighton's Latin Lessons* contains no less material chosen from 
Caesar than the books cited, but additional reading matter is pro- 
vided consisting of biographical sketches and stories. The follow- 
ing statement is made in the preface: 

The Reading Lessons which follow are largely made up from modern Latin — 
a few Fables from Aesop and extracts from Viri Romae — owing to the almost 
absolute lack in classic authors of matter at once simple in style and suitable for 
elementary practice. These are followed by Woodford's Epitome oj the First 
Book of the Gallic War, which gives the main thread of the narrative in Caesar's 
own words, omitting the parenthetical clauses. 

These two classes of material, after 1860, with the emphasis upon 
selections from Caesar, constitute the reading lessons of first-year 
texts. 

* See Appendix, Tables A-H. If the columns contain figures or are numbered thus x it indicates 
that the subject named in the margin was taught. The mark thus o indicates no specification. 

> The New Liber Primus, ISSg. 

* .\llen, Wm. F., and Allen, J. H., Latin Lessons Adapted to the Latin Grammar. Fourth Edition, 
1869. 

* Leichton, R. F., Latin Lessons Adapted to Allen and Greenough's Latin Grammar, 1872. 



192 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Two first-year books in common use were First Lessons in Latin} 
and the' Beginner's Latin Book} The former shows the emphasis 
in the title upon preparation for work in Caesar and the text itself 
furnished evidence of the same fact. Collar and Daniell's text is 
apparently intended to serve the purpose of both grammar and 
reader and the material in reading is relatively less extensive. It 
does not, however, differ essentially in character from that found 
in the Jones text. 

One thing that indicates very clearly the fact that the character 
of the work in first-year Latin remained practically unchanged was 
the wide use of Harkness' text. This book appears in every list 
made up from the printed courses of study from 1860 to 1900. The 
first-year books already mentioned did not dilTer in any essential 
particular from the Harkness Grammar and Reader except in some 
reduction in the details of Latin grammar. 

The modern languages apparently have a history very similar 
to that of Latin from the standpoint of character of subject-matter 
and method of treatment. Since it was usual to offer but two 
years and in some schools but a single year as shown by Tables A-H, 
the work consisted chiefly of grammar and exercises for gramma- 
tical drill. The grammar translation method rather than the 
so-called natural or the direct method has prevailed. Professor 
Handschin has the following to say as late as 1912: 

Our readers, texts, and for the most part, our grammars are not adapted to 
the direct method of teaching.' 

In speaking of the teaching of German, he says: 

Consider a typical two year high school course as we find it today. It con- 
sists of (beside the grammar and reader) .... let us say of Immcnsee 

Next follows L'Arrabbiala, a gem of literature, but an eratic story of Italian life 
that has nothing German about it but the language. Then follows a long prose 
talc or at best a short modern comedy, and Wilhdin Tell and the course is finished. 

Since the course consisted of grammar and reading, Immensee and 
Wilhelm Tell were no doubt common throughout the period covered 
by this study as shown by the printed lists of texts contained in 
the school reports. The German readers such as Sheldon's, and 
grammars (Worman's and Heidner's are examples) show the 
emphasis upon grammatical drill and that the reading matter is 
selected primarily for its value in this particular. 

' Jones, Elisha, First Lessons in Latin, 1877. 

"Collar, William C.and Daniell, M. O., Thr Bei^inncr's Latin Book, 1886. 

•Handschin, C. H., The Teaching of Modern Languaurs in the United Slates, 1912. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 193 
2. THE MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 

These occupied only a secondary place in the curriculum and 
information is meager concerning the details of subject-matter and 
method of treatment. 

As has been pointed out in connection with the discussion of 
the commercial subjects in Part I, they were comparatively negligi- 
ble until the last decade of the period. Bookkeeping was taught 
from the first and thus constituted the chief, and in most schools 
the only, commercial subject taught. A few schools list business 
forms, but the information available concerning the nature of this 
work indicates that it was only a part of bookkeeping. In the 
school report' of Newark, Ohio, the principal says: 

For some time there has been a demand in this city that the higli school 
should give to its members a more thorough knowledge of business forms. To 
meet this demand as an elective study alternate with Political Economy, a course 
with recitations is provided three times a week throughout the year in the D 
High School. 

The commercial arithmetic differed but little from the other 
texts used. The commercial texts were little more than the usual 
grammar-school books with a slight emphasis upon the class of 
problems involving commercial transactions. 

There is no evidence revealed by a study of the school reports 
that what was later called business English received any attention. 
The so-called commercial courses were for the most part made up 
of subjects only remotely connected with training for business of 
any sort. Stenography and typewriting were taught in a few 
schools after 1890. The whole field of commercial education so 
far as the high schools were concerned, remained practically un- 
developed until after the beginning of the present century. 

Of the industrial subjects only manual training is listed in the 
high-school curricula and this only in a small percentage of 
schools at the very close of the period. It is probable that no 
textbooks were used since none are mentioned in the published 
lists of high-school texts. The courses of study indicate the lines 
of work and from these one can gain a general idea of the character 
of the work. 

1 Bi-annual Report of Ike Superinlendenl of the Newark, Ohio, Public Schools, 1881 and 1882, p. 27. 



194 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Appleton, Wisconsin, offered work in manual training in 1887. 
The following statement is found in a footnote to the printed 
course of study : 

A department of Manual Training has been added. This includes bench 
work, wood carving and mechanical drawing. This course is optional.' 

The character of the work and also the point of view in teaching 
manual training in the Chicago schools in 1886 is shown by the 
following statement of the superintendent: 

Much attention and discussion has been given to this question during the 
year and it was determined to make an experimental beginning this present year. 
A convenient room has been furnished with benches and tools for pupils of the 
first grade in the high schools. Some seventy pupils are at present engaged in 
mechanical drawing and bench work in the afternoon. The interest manifested 
and the progress made has thus far exceeded our highest expectations. The 
greatest benefit of this work, in my opinion, is the habit of industry and the 
dignifying of labor. The study of things rather than of words and the application 
of philosophical principles of daily labor is by no means to be overlooked. - 

He states further that bench work should not begin much earlier 
than the high school and doubts whether work in iron should be 
introduced. His objection is that it would be expensive and would 
probably not receive popular approval. 

The rapid development of the work, however, is shown by a 
statement of the superintendent in the Report of 1888 as follows: 

For the first year the pupils have carpenter work with free hand and mechani- 
cal drawing; for the second year they have wood turning, pattern making, mech- 
anical drawing, modeling, molding, and casting of soft metals.' 

In discussing the work further he says: 

We have drawing, freehand and mechanical, nice geometrical constructions, 
the graphic solution of problems, geographical and historical illustrations; with 
much work in botany and chemistry requiring accurate observation and nice 
manipulation.'' 

The following concerning the work in Cleveland, Ohio, shows 
the way in which it was introduced and also its character: 

Manual Training in Cleveland was started in February, 1885. A small 
carpenter shop was opened in a barn near the Central High School for the benefit 
of the boys in that school. The same year a stock company of Cleveland business 
men was incorporated to build a manual training school for the interests of the 

'Annual Catalog of the Public Schools, 1886-87, p. 19. 
= Annual Report Board of Education, 1886, pp. 56-57. 
" Annual Report Board o/ Education, 1888, p. 80. 
• Ibid., p. 86. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 195 

Cleveland High School boys. The school was opened in January, 1886. In 
1887 a law was passed by the Ohio State Legislature providing a ta.K levy for 
the support of Manual Training in Cleveland. This money was turned over to 
the Manual Training High School Company by the Board of Education in return 
for the free tuition of high school pupils. In 1890 the Board of Education estab- 
lished the West Side Manual Training School wholly supported by the Board. 
The work consisted of mechanical drawing, carpentry, wood turning, pattern 
making, forging and machine shop practice, the course usually given in manual 
training of that period.' 

Mr. Milo Stewart, principal of the Manual Training High 
School, Indianapolis, Indiana, says in a personal letter: 

The subject was offered first in 1895. The program of work from 1895 to 
1900 was as follows; Stenography, bookkeeping, penmanship, wood working, 
mechanical drawing and iron and steel forging. 

"Mechanical drawing and bench work" is the only description 
given of the work in manual training in the Omaha, Nebraska, 
High School in 1889.= 

Further development of the work in the Chicago English High 
and Manual Training School is shown by the course of study for 
1895.^ The course includes mechanical and freehand drawing, 
joinery and wood-turning, cabinet and bench work, pattern work, 
foundry and blacksmith work, machine shopwork — chipping, filing, 
and fitting — and use of lathe planer and milling machine, lectures 
on wood, iron, and machinery, and its work constituted a part of the 
regular work of the course. 

The work provided in the course ofTered by the Appleton, 
Wisconsin, High School* in 1900 is grouped under two heads — 
drawing and shopwork. Under the former are listed notes on 
experimental geometry, geometrical solution of problems with 
draughting instruments, block and freehand lettering, shade-lining, 
tracing, blue printing and mounting prints, freehand drawing, 
dimension sketches, notes on pattern making, molding and casting, 
pattern and machine drawing, elementary mechanism, notes on 
forging, welding and tool making, orthographic projection, and 
machine design. 

The shopwork is described as follows: instruction in construc- 
tion, care, and use of bench tools and joinery; instruction and 

' Information furnished by a letter to the author by Mr. Roberta who had charge of the m l ln i ml 
training work in Cleveland for a number of years. 
' Report Board oj EJucalion, 1889. 
' Annual Report Board of Education, 1895, pp. 319-20. 
« Catalog oj Public Schools, Appleton, Wisconsin, 1900, pp. 54-61. 



196 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

practice in putting bencli tools in order, wood carving; lathe work 
in wood (hand tools) ; pattern making, molding and casting (in 
brass, zinc, and plaster of Paris); forging (in iron and steel), weld- 
ing, case hardening and hardening and tempering steel; bench work 
in metals, machine work in metals and machine finishing, polishing, 
and grinding. 

In a footnote to the work of the first year is found the following 
statement: 

The shop work includes a finished article — such as a stand, table, grille — 
which shall be as far as possible, the product of the pupil's work.' 

The work of the two schools last cited was much more extensive 
than was offered in most of the schools even as late as 1910 as shown 
by the printed courses of study. Usually little or no work was 
done in iron and the work in wood was less extensive than either of 
the above courses indicate. The emphasis in these early years of 
the work was placed upon learning to use hand tools and in making 
a "finished article such as a stand, table" and the like. 

' Catalog, Applelan, Wisconsin. Public Schools, 1900. 



PART III 

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 

CHAPTER XIV 

ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA AND RANGE OF SUBJECTS 

The close of the nineteenth century witnessed certain definite 
tendencies in secondary education. No radical readjustments 
had yet taken place but tendencies were developed during the last 
decade of the century which have resulted in a great movement 
changing the scope and character of secondary education in marked 
degree. As pointed out, however, in Part I, the old order of things 
held until the close of the century in spite of the tendencies referred 
to above during the last decade. The first decade of the present 
century shows an increase in these tendencies, but the readjust- 
ments have really taken place for the most part since 1910. Since 
that date radical changes have already occurred or are well under 
way. 

One of the very marked changes is in the scope of secondary 
education. The junior high school adds two years to the high- 
school curriculum from below, making six years instead of four. 
The junior college adds two years beyond the twelfth grade. In 
case a high school includes both of these, the curriculum includes 
eight years of work. The latter type of school is not classified 
definitely as a secondary institution, but a number of schools are 
so recognized and others are in prospect of establishment. Chicago' 
now maintains a junior college in connection with the Crane Techni- 
cal High School and one has been established in Grand Rapids,^ 
Michigan. The State Department of South Dakota reports two in 
that state "all connected with high schools." Statistics are rather 
meager concerning this institution but it is evident that the move- 
ment has considerable momentum and may result in a general 
extension upward of the scope of secondary education. 

Every indication at the present time is that the movement to 
establish junior high schools will result in a fixed policy of including 
at least six years in the scope of high-school education. The move- 

' Cf. Course oj Study. 1917. 

2 Cf. School Survey. Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1910, pp. 267 3. 

197 



198 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

ment is now widespread in the North Central states as shown by 
data collected and tabulated by Professor C. O. Davis for the North 
Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.' His 
report shows that there were 1,140 schools accredited by the 
association in 1918 and this number includes two hundred and 
ninety-three which maintain junior high schools. It is true that 
this type of school is far from being standardized, either from the 
standpoint of organization or curriculum. In fact, the name 
"junior high school" is applied to but one hundred and sixty-eight 
of these schools. Other names being employed are: "department 
school," forty-six; "six-year high school," twelve; other names, 
sixty-seven. There is lack of uniformity also regarding the grades 
included as this same report shows: eighty-nine include grades 
seven, eight, and nine; twenty-two, grades six, seven, and eight; 
eight, grades eight and nine; one hundred and thirty-three, grades 
seven and eight; eleven, only the eighth grade; and eleven desig- 
nated as including other grades. Eighteen having the six-six 
plan do not make distinction between junior and senior high school 
organization, but it is clear that all grades beyond the seventh are 
included. If the recommendation of the Commission on Units 
and Curricula of the North Central Association made to the Asso- 
ciation in 1917 and adopted the present year is accepted as a 
standard, uniformity will prevail in the number of years included. 
The recommendation reads as follows: 

The Junior High School shall normally include the seventh, eighth, and 
ninth years of public school work.' 

Lack of standardization is also shown by an examination of the 
curricula of these schools. In some cases elementary subjects pre- 
dominate to such an extent that there is little difference between 
the work of the first two years and the traditional seventh- and 
eighth-grade work. In others the work is predominately of 
secondary grade so far as the subjects are concerned. This dif- 
ference is also shown by different schools from the standpoint of 
curricula organization. Some schools offer a single curriculum 
with few or no electives during the first two years while others 
recognize the needs of pupil groups and provide parallel curricula. 
The recommendation of the North Central Association also touches 
upon this point.' 

■ Leaflet published 1918. 

^Proceedings oj North Central Association Colleges and Secondary Schools^ 1917, p. 56. 

• Ibid., pp. 56-57. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



199 



The following are typical junior high school curricula: 
DULUTH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



Academic Courses 



Prevocational Codrses 



SEVENTH GRADE 



Required Subjects 



Periods 
per Week 



Required Subjects 



Periods 
per Week 



English . 

Arithmetic 

History & Geography 

Physical Training 

Music and Penmanship .... 

Drawing 

Sbopwork or Home Training 



English 

Arithmetic 

History & Geography. . 

Physical Training 

Music and Penmanship, 
Drawing 



Choose One 



English 
Latin . . 
French . 



Periods 



Boys 



Wood work , . . . , 
Metal work. . . , 

Printing 

Physiology &Hy 

giene 



Periods 


Weeks 


10 


9 


10 


9 


10 


9 


5 


9 



Girls 



Housekeeping . . 

Garment Mak- 
ing 

Physiology and 
Home Nurs- 
ing 

Textiles 



Periods 



10 
10 



Weeks 



EIGHTH GRADE 



Required Subjects 



Periods per Week 



Required Subjects 



Periods per Week 



English 

Mathematics 

American History and Civics. 

Physical Training 

Music and Penmanship 

Drawing 

Shopwork or Home Training . 

Additional 

French 

Latin, or 

English 



English 

Applied Mathematics 

American History and Civics 
Music and Penmanship. . . . 

Drawing 

Physical Training 



Through 
the year 



Boys 



Periods 


Weeks 


5 


18 


5 


18 


10 


18 



Girls 



Periods 



Weeks 



B 8th Typewriting 

or Science 

A 8tb Electricity.. 



Household management or 
Garment-making 

A 8th Typewriting or 

Science 



18 
18 
18 
18 



200 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



NINTH GRADE 



Required Subjects 



Periods 

per 
Week 



Required Subjects 



Periods 

per 
Week 



English 

Algebra 

Physical Training, 
Drawing or Music 
European Hist. . . 



Prep. English or Business English 
Econ. Hist, and Occupations. . . . 

Physical Training 

Drawing or Music 



Boys 



B 9th Mech. Dr. Advanced 
A 9th Advanced Wood work and 
Concrete or Machine Shop. 



Periods 


Weeks 


10 
10 


18 
18 



Girls 



Large Quantity Cookery and . . . 

B 9th Art Needle Work 

A 9th Elementary Dressmaking . 



Periods 



10 
10 
10 



Weeks 



12 
8 
16 



Choose One 



Latin or French . 
European Hist . . 

Stenography 

Typewriting .... 

Bookkeeping 

Science 



Periods 



5 
5 
5 
5 or 10 
10 
7 



Through 
the year 



Choose One 



Latin or French. . . 

Algebra 

European Hist. . . . 
Commercial Arith. 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Bookkeeping 

Science 



Periods 



5 
S 
5 
S 
5 
5 or 10 
10 
7 



Through 
the year 



On the advice of the Principal students may specialize on some Industrial subject. 
The seventh grade prevocational students will take two shop subjects each semester in the order 
in which they are offered. They are required of all prevocational students. 
Notes for the Ninth Grade. — 

1. Those who expect to take only two years of the Commercial Course in the Senior High School 
should choose Commercial Arithmetic and either Stenography and Typewriting or History and 
Bookkeeping. 

2. Those who have taken the Prevocational Course in the Seventh and Eighth Grades and who 
expect to take the General Academic Course in the Senior High School should choose either Science or 
Language. 

3. For those who do not expect to continue longer than the Ninth Grade in school, a special arrange- 
ment may be made by which they will be required to take English, Physical Training, and Drawing 
or Music, and in addition they may choose, with the approval of the Principal three subjects or group 
of subjects. 

4. Girls who intend to pursue the Home Training Course in the High School should elect Science 
in the Ninth Grade. 

GARFIELD JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL— RICHMOND, INDIANA 
Seventh-Grade Work 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS 
TWENTY-FIVE PERIODS PER WEEK 

Periods 
per Week 

English 5 

Arithmetic 5 

History 5 



ELECTIVE SUBJECTS 
FIVE PERIODS PER WEEK 

Periods 
per Week 

Latin 5 

German 5 

English Composition 5 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



201 



Physical Education 3 

Industrial or 

Household Arts 3 

Music 2 

Drawing 2 

Eighth- 
required SUBJECTS 
TWENTY PERIODS PER WEEK 

Periods 
per Week 

English 5 

Arithmetic 5 

Geography (8B), 

Civics (8A) 5 

Physical Education 3 

Chorus or Drawing 2 



Industrial or 

Household Arts 5 

Agriculture 5 

Commercial Work 5 

Orchestra 2 (extra) 

Grade Work 

elective subjects 
ten periods per week 

Periods 
per Week 

Latin 5 

German 5 

English Composition 5 

Industrial or 

Household Arts S or 10 

Agriculture 5 or 10 

Commercial Work 5 or 10 

Drawing and Design 5 

Music 5 

Orchestra 2 (extra) 

Ninth-Grade Work 



REQUIRED SUBJECTS 
FIFTEEN PERIODS PER WEEK 

Periods 
per Week 

English S 

General Science 5 

Physical Education 3 

Chorus or Drawing 2 



ELECTIVE SUBJECTS 
FIFTEEN PERIODS PER WEEK 

Periods 
p«r Week 

Latin 5 

German S 

Industrial or 

Household Arts 5 or 10 

Agriculture 5 or 10 

Drawing and Design 5 or 10 

Music 5 

Mathematics 

Algebra, Commercial or 
Industrial Arithmetic. . . 5 

Civics 5 

Histoiy 5 

Orchestra 2 (extra) 



AURORA PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

Tentative Course, Junior High School 
first semester 



Required 
English 5 

Literature 

Composition 

Spelling 1 

Civics lYi 



Optional 

English Grammar 5 

Latin 5 

German 5 

Algebra 5 

Commercial Arithmetic S 



202 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

General Science 2 J^ Cooking 1 

Sewing 1 

Manual Training 2 

Music 1 

Drawing 1 

Penmanship 2 

SECOND SEMESTER 
Required Optional 

English 5 English Grammar 5 

Literature Latin S 

Composition German 5 

Spelling 1 Algebra 5 

Civics 2}^ Commercial Arithmetic and 

General Science 2}^ Bookkeeping 5 

Cooking 1 

Sewing 1 

Manual Training 2 

Music 1 

Drawing 1 

Penmanship 2 

Forty-six semester units required to complete the year's work. 

The numeral set opposite the various subjects indicates the unit credits 
allowed for each, and measures as nearly as possible the comparative time and 
effort required to satisfy requirements in each. 

These curricula clearly show the secondary character of the 
work. One provides parallel curricula and the other two each a 
single curriculum with electives. The first two include the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth grades while the last provides only one year's 
work. Each of the first two schools maintains a senior high school 
of three years with parallel curricula corresponding to the junior 
high school. In the case of Aurora, the term "senior high school" 
is not used. Six parallel curricula are offered following the "tenta- 
tive course" of one year. Four of the six curricula are four years 
in length; the other two, five years. 

1. CURRICULA ORGANIZATION 

No uniformity exists in the plan of organization of curricula. 
Certain tendencies toward uniformity have been manifest for 
about twenty years and these are in process of being worked out. 
Two things should be taken into account in any fruitful discussion 
of this topic: first, the plan of organization, and secondly, the 
educational aims involved. Taking up first the question of edu- 
cational aims, it is evident both from the titles of curricula and also 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



203 



their content that aims are becoming more definite and that they 
are being expressed more and more in terms of the needs of various 
pupil groups. Some of the old titles still remain, but on the whole, 
titles have become more meaningful, and differentiation of cur- 
ricula with reference to the needs of student groups is on the 
increase. This tendency is increasing so far as curricula titles are 
concerned, at least, as shown by a comparison of (1) and (2) in 
Table XXVII. 

^n Three plans of organization prevail — a single course with elec- 
tives, parallel courses, and the major-minor system. The latter, 
however, is rare, but it is probable that its use will become more 
general.' 

The following table shows the number of courses offered, their 
designations, and the number of each. 

TABLE XXVIII 

1. — SIXTY SCHOOLS, 1906-11 
Number Number 

of Schools of Courses 

23 1 

7 2 

4 3 

14 4 

9 5 

3 6 

Designation Number 

of Courses of Schools 

Academic 1 

Art 1 

Art and Manual Training 1 

Business 2 

Classical 5 

Classical Preparatory 1 

College Preparatory 8 

Commercial 29 

Commercial Industrial 1 

Domestic Science 1 

Elective 2 

Engineering 1 

Engineering Preparatory 1 

English 8 

English and Latin 1 

English Scientific 2 

English Commercial 1 

Five-year General 1 

' Report North Centr<ii Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1917, pp. 5S-59. 



204 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Five-year Latin 1 

Foreign Language 1 

General 8 

General Science 1 

German 3 

German-English 2 

Historical 1 

History 3 

Industrial 2 

Language 3 

Language and Science 1 

Latin 11 

Latin-English 1 

Latin-German 3 

Latin-Scientific 2 

Literary 1 

Manual Arts 1 

Manual Training 4 

Modern Classical 1 

Modern Language 1 

Normal Training 3 

Physical Science 1 

Regular 2 

Science 5 

Scientific 9 

Scientific English 1 

Scientific Preparatory 1 

Teachers' 2 

2. — SIXTY SCHOOLS, 1915-18 

Number Number 

of Schools of Courses 

15 1 

5 2 

5 3 

8 4 

7 5 

4 6 

6 7 

3 8 

2 9 

1 10 

1 11 

1 12 

1 13 

1 19 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



205 



Designation Number 

ef Courses of Schools 

Academic 2 

Accounting 2 

Agricultural 5 

Architectural 1 

Art 2 

B usiness 4 

Business-English 1 

Civil Service 1 

Classical 5 

Classical Preparatory 20 

College Preparatory and Domestic Science 1 

College Preparatory for Engineering, 

Agricultural, and Technical Courses 1 

College Preparatory in Pharmacy 1 

Combined Commercial and Manual Training — Boys 1 

Combined Commercial and Manual Training — Girls 1 

Commercial 31 

Commercial Course for Boys 1 

Commercial Course for Girls 1 

Contractor 1 

Course in Millinery 1 

Course in Needle Arts 1 

Dentistry 1 

Domestic Science 2 

Domestic Science and Arts 1 

Engineering 4 

English 10 

English-Scientific 2 

Fine Arts 1 

Five-year Latin 1 

Five-year General 1 

Household St udies 1 

General 16 

General College Course 1 

General College Preparatory 1 

German 4 

History 4 

Home 1 

Home Arts 1 

Home Economics 5 

Household Arts 2 

Household Economics 2 

Household Science 2 

Industrial 1 

Industrial Arts 1 

Industrial Course for Boys 1 



206 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Industrial Course for Girls 1 

Industrial and Engineering 1 

Industrial and Vocational 1 

Language 2 

Latin 9 

Latin-French 1 

Latin-German 2 

Latin-Scientific 1 

Local 1 

Law 1 

Manual Arts 4 

Manual Training 11 

Mathematics 1 

Mechanic Arts 1 

Medicine 1 

Modern Classical 1 

Modern Language 3 

Normal College Preparatory 1 

Normal Training S 

Office Preparatory 1 

Pharmacist 1 

Preparatory 1 

Rural Economics 1 

Science 10 

Scientific 8 

Scientific College Preparatory 2 

Special Preparatory 1 

Stenography 3 

Teachers' 10 

Telegraphy 1 

Technical 1 

Vocational 1 

•The above titles indicate four-year courses with the exceptions noted. 

The following are titles of two-year courses : 

Designation Number 

of Courses of Schools 

Accounting 

Agriculture 

Bookkeeping 

Domestic Science and Arts 

Electricity 

Industrial 

Machine Shop 

Printing 

Stenography 

Shorthand 

Commercial (one year) 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 207 

Turning to the titles listed on pages 205-06, such as the follow- 
ing are significant showing the specific character of educational op- 
portunity provided: Agriculture, Commercial Courses for Boys, 
Commercial Courses for Girls, Courses in Millinery, Course in 
Needle Arts, Normal Training, Teachers', Bookkeeping, Account- 
ing, Electricity, Printing, Machine Shop, and Stenography. The 
preparatory curricula have also felt the influence of professional 
and industrial influences. Such titles as the following show this: 
College Preparatory for Engineering, College Preparatory in 
Pharmacy, Pharmacist, Law, and Dentistry. How recent these 
specific terms are is shown by a comparison of titles in (1) and (2) 
of Table XXVIII, and the contrast between present practice and 
that of the closing years of the nineteenth century is shown by 
comparing the titles in Table XXVIII with those in (8) Table I. 

It is true, of course, that specific titles do not always mean a 
high degree of specialization, but many of these industrial and 
commercial curricula do provide a rather highly specialized type of 
education. 

Survival of the earlier practice of using titles derived from the 
various fields and subjects is shown by such terms as Latin, English, 
History, Latin-Scientific, etc. Also, indefinite titles such as 
General, Elective, Academic, and the like, still prevail. A com- 
parison, however, of Tables I and XXVIII shows the recent decline 
of this practice, and a comparison of (8) in Table I with that of (2) 
in Table XXVIII indicates the change which has taken place in 
this particular during the last twenty years. 

The plan of organization — one curriculum with electives or 
several parallel curricula — may or may not be significant, depend- 
ing upon (1) the range of subjects offered, and (2) the plan of 
administering the elective system. For example, one school may 
provide a single curriculum with electives so administered that the 
same educational opportunity is provided as is furnished by another 
school which offers two or more parallel curricula. In evaluating 
these plans it is therefore necessary to know something of the 
details of administering them. Some printed courses of study 
furnish this information and others do not. From the evidence 
available, however, it is evident that an attempt is being made by 
the schools which publish a single curriculum to provide through 
a system of electives for differentiation to meet the needs of the 
various pupil groups. As has been pointed out, this attempt to 



208 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



provide special types of education to meet the various commercial 
and industrial demands is clearly revealed both by curricula organi- 
zation and the range of subjects offered. The following are typical 
high-school curricula for the periods 1906-11 and 1915-18. 

CHEBOYGAN, MICHIGAN, 1909-10 



FIRST \-EAR 
First Semester 
Required 
English 

Algebra 

General Electives 

Latin 
Zoology 

Ancient History 
Manual Training 

Domestic Science 

Commercial Elective* 
Penmanship and Spelling 



SECOND YEAR- 

Required 
English 
Algebra 

General Electives 
Latin (Caesar) 

Medieval and Modern History 
Physiography 
Manual Training 
Domestic Science 

Commercial Electives 
Bookkeeping 

THIRD YEAR- 
Required 
English 

Plane Geometry 
Physics 

General Electives 
Latin (Cicero) 
German 

Commercial Electives 
Commercial Geography 

FOURTH YEAR 
Required 
American History and Civics 



— NINTH GRADE 



Second Semester 
Required 

English 
Algebra 

General Electives 
Latin 
Botany 

Ancient History 
Manual Training 

Domestic Science 

Commercial Elective* 
Commercial Arithmetic 
Penmanship and Spelling 

-TENTH GRADE 

Required 
English 
Plane Geometry 

General Electives 
Latin (Caesar) 

Medieval and Modern History 
Physiography 
Manual Training 
Domestic Science 

Commercial Electives 
Bookkeeping 



English 



-ELEVENTH GRADE 

Required 
English 

Solid Geometry* 
Physics 

General Electives 
Latin (Cicero) 
German 

Commercial Electives 
Stenography and Typewriting 

— TWELFTH GRADE 

Required 
American History 
Civics 
English 



•Not required of students who take the full commercial course. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



209 



Genera! Electives 


General Electives 


Latin (Virgil) 




Latin (Virgil) 


German 




German 




Chemistry 




Chemistry 




English Grammar Review 


Algebra Review 






Advanced 1 


Physiology 


Commercial Electives 


Commercial Electives 


Commercial Law 


Bookkeeping 


Stenography 




Stenography 


Typewriting 




Typewritin 


g 




CHEBOYGAN, 1 


MICHIGAN, 1916 






LATIN COURSE 




First Year 


Second Year 


Third Year 


Fourth Year 


English 


English 


English 


Latin 


Algebra 


Algebra and 


Geometry 


German 


Latin 


Geometry 


Latin 


Physics 


Ancient History 


Latin 

Modern History 


German 


American Historj 




LATIN-GERMAN COURSE 




English 


English 


English 


English 


Algebra 


Algebra and 


Geometry 


German 


Latin 


Geometry 


Chemistry 


Physics 


Ancient History 


Latin 

Modern History 


German 


American History 




ENGLISH COURSE 




English 


English 


English 


English 


Algebra 


Algebra and 


Geometry 


Physics 


Biology, Zoology, 


Geometry 


Chemistry 


German or Latin 


and Botany 


Physiography 


German or Latin 


American History 


Arithmetic and 


Modern History 






Commercial Cor- 








respondence 








Correspondence 










COMMERCIAL COURSE 




English 


English 


English 


English 


Algebra 


Algebra and 


Geometry or 


Physics 


Biology, Zoology, 


Geometry 


Chemistry 


Stenography and 


and Botany 


Physiography 


Stenography and 


Typewriting 


Arithmetic and 


Bookkeeping 


Typewriting 


American History 


Commercial Cor- 




Commercial Geog- 




respondence 




raphy and Law 




Correspondence 









210 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



DELAVAN, WISCONSIN, 1910-11 





English Course 




FIRST YEAR 




First Semester 




Second Semester 


Algebra 




Algebra 


English 




English 


Physical Geography 




Physical Geography, Botany 


Physiology 


SECOND YEAR 


Geography 


Ancient History 




Ancient History 


English 




English 


Botany 




Bookkeeping 


Arithmetic 


THIRD YEAR 


Civics 


Geometry 




Geometry 


Medieval History 




Modern History 


English 




American Literature 


Political Economy 


FOURTH YEAR 


English Grammar 


Physics 




Physics 


American History 




American History 


English Literature 




English Literature 


Theory and Art 




Algebra or Reviews 


M. 


ODERN Classical Course 




FIRST YEAR 




Algebra 




Algebra 


English 




English 


Physical Geography 




Physical Geography, Botany 


Latin 


SECOND YEAR 


Latin 


Ancient History 




Ancient History 


English 




English 


Botany 




Latin 


Latin 


THIRD YEAR 


Bookkeeping or Civics 


Medieval History 




Modern History 


Geometry 




Geometry 


Latin 




Latin 


German 


FOURTH YEAR 


German 


Physics 




Physics 


American History 




American History 


Latin 




Latin 


German 




German 




German Course 




FIRST year 




Algebra 




Algebra 


English 




English 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



211 



Physical Geography 




Physical Geography 


Physiology 


SECOND YEAR 


Botany 
Geography 


Ancient History 




Ancient History 


English 




English 


Botany 




Bookkeeping 


Arithmetic 


THIRD YEAR 


Civics 


Medieval History 




Modern History 


Geometry 




Geometry 


German 




German 


Political Economy 


FOURTH YEAR 


English Grammar 


Physics 




Physics 


American History 




American History 


German 




German 


English Literature 




English Literature 


YANKTON 


.SOUTH DAKOTA, 1911 


Latin Course 


FIRST YEAR 


Scientific Course 


Required 




Required 


English 




English 


Algebra 




Algebra 


Latin 




Ancient History 


Penmanship 




Penmanship 


Elective 




Elective 


Ancient History 




Physical Geography 


Music 




Commercial Geography 


Drawing 


SECOND YEAR 


Music 
Drawing 


Required 




Required 


English 




English 


Latin 




German 


Geometry 




Geometry 


Elective 




Elective 


Modern History 




Modern History 


German I 




Botany 


Music 




Agriculture 


Drawing 


THIRD YEAR 


Music 
Drawing 


Required 




Required 


English 




English 


Solid Geometry, Algebra 




Solid Geometry, Algebra 


Latin 




German 
Chemistry 



212 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Elective 






Elective 


English History 






Music 


French History 






Drawing 


German II 








M usic 








Drawing 




FOURTH YEAR 




Required 






Required 


English 






English 


Physics 






Physics 


Latin 








Elective 






Elective 


German III 






German III 


American History, 


Arithmetic 


American History, Arithmetic 


Economy, Commercii 


il Law 


Economy, Commercial Law 








Physiology, Biology 



YANKTON, SOUTH DAKOTA, 1917 
Normal Course 



FIRST YEAR 



Required 
English 
Algebra 
Latin 

Penmanship 
Physical Culture 
Music 



SECOND YEAR 



English 

Latin 

Algebra and Plane Geometry 

Biology and Physiology 

Physical Training 

THIRD YEAR 

English 

Plane Geometry and Solid Geometry 

Physical Culture 

American History and Civics 

German or Latin 



FOURTH YEAR 



English 

Psychology and Pedagogy 

Arithmetic 



Elective 
German or Latin 
Domestic Science or 

Manual Training 
Art 
Physical Geography and 

General Science 

German or Latin 
Modern History 
Domestic Science or 
Manual Training 
Music 
Art 

Chemistry 

Public Speaking and Debating 

Music 

Art 

Agriculture 

German or Latin 

Public Speaking and Debating 

Music 

Art 

Agriculture 

Physics 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



213 



Scientific Course 


FIRST 


YEAR 




Required 




Elective 


English 




Ancient History 


Algebra 




Latin 


Physical Culture 




Music 

Art 

General Science 

Manual Training or Domestic 

Science 
Physical Geography and 

General Science 


SECOND 


YEAR 




English 




Modern Histor>' 


Algebra and Plane Geometry 




I^tin 


Physical Culture 




Music 
Art 






Manual Training or Domestic 

Science 
Biology and Physiology- 


THIRD 


YEAR 




English 




Latin 


German 




Public Speaking and Debating 


Chemistry 




Music 


Physical Culture 




Art 

American History and Civics 

Plane Geometry and Algebra 


FOURTH 


YEAR 




English 




Latin 


Physics 




Public Speaking and Debating 


German 




Political Economy and 
Arithmetic 


Physical Culture 




M usic 
Art 


Industrial and^Engineering Course 


FIRST year 




Required 




Elective 


English 




Latin 


Mechanical Drawing and 




Ancient History 


Bench Work 




Physical Geography and 


Algebra 




General Science 


Physical Culture 




Music 
Art 


SECOND YEAR 




English 




Latin 


Algebra and Plane Geometry 




Modern History 


Mechanical Drawing 




Music 


Bench Work 




Art 


Physical Culture 




Physiology 
Biology 



214 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



THIRD YEAR 

English 

Plane Geometry and Solid Geometry 
German 

Architectural and Mechanical Draw- 
ing and Forge and Machine Work 
Physical Culture 

FOURTH YEAR 

English 
Physics 
Architectural and Mechanical Drawing, 

Forge and Machine Work 
German 
Physical Culture 



Latin 

Public Speaking and Debating 

Chemistry 

Music 

Art 

German 

Spanish 

Latin 

Public Speaking and Debating 

Political Economy and 

Arithmetic 
Music 
Art 

German 
Spanish 



Home Economics Course 
first year 



second year 



Required 
English 

Home Economics 
Algebra 
Latin 
Physical Culture 

English 

Home Economics 

Latin 

Physical Culture 

Biology and Physiology 

THIRD YEAR 

English 

Home Economics 

Physical Culture 

American History and Civics 

Chemistry 



FOURTH YEAR 



English 

Home Economics 
Physical Culture 
Physics 



Elective 
Ancient History 
Physical Geography and 

General Science 
Music 
Art 

Modern History 

Algebra and Plane Geometry 

Music 

Art 



Latin 

German 

Chemistry 

Public Speaking and Debating 

Music 

Art 

German or Latin 

Public Speaking and Debating 

Political Economy and 

Arithmetic 
Music 
Art 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



215 



Classical Course 


FIRST YEAR 




Required 


Elective 


English 


Ancient History 


Algebra 


Music 


Latin 


Art 


Physical Culture 


Manual Training or 




Domestic Science 




Physical and General Science 


SECOND YEAR 




English 


Modern History 


Latin 


Music 


Algebra and Plane Geometry 


Art 


Physical Culture 


Biology and Physiology 




Manual Training or Domestic 




Science 


THIRD YEAR 




English 


German 


Plane Geometry and Solid Geometry 


Music 


Latin 


Art 


American History and Civics 


Public Speaking and Debating 


Physical Culture 


Chemistry 


FOURTH YEAR 




English 


German 


Physics 


Public Speaking and Debating 


Latin 


Music 


Physical Culture 


Art 




Political Economy and 




Arithmetic 


Commercial Course 


FIRST YEAR 


SECOND YEAR 


Required 


Required 


Algebra 


English 


Commercial Geography and 


Algebra and Plane Geometry 


Commercial Arithmetic 


Typewriting 


Typewriting 


Bookkeeping 


Physical Training 


Penmanship 


Penmanship 


Biology and Physiology 


Latin 


Physical Training 


THIRD YEAR 


FOURTH YEAR 


Required 


Required 


English 


Shorthand 


Bookkeeping and Shorthand 


Political Economy and 


Principles 


Commercial Law 


American History and Civics 


Typewriting 


Physical Training 


Physical Training 


Spanish 


Spanish 



216 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



FIRST YEAR 
Required 
English 
Algebra 

Manual Training or 
Domestic Science 
Latin 

Physical Training 



Agricultural Course 

second year 

Required 
English 

Manual Training or 
Domestic Science 
Latin 
Physical Training 



Elective 
Ancient History 
Physiology and General Science 

THIRD YEAR 
Required 
English 
Agriculture 
Chemistry 

Physical Training 

Elective 
American History and Civics 
Public Speaking and Debating 
Manual Training or 
Domestic Science 



Elective 

Biology 

Algebra and Plane Geometry 

FOURTH YEAR 
Required 

English 
Agriculture 
Physical Training 

Elective 

Political Economy and 

Commercial Law 
Public Speaking and Debating 
Manual Training or 

Domestic Science 



Note. — Students wishing to take electives other than those given may possibly do so upon consulta- 
tion with principal. Such selections, however, should be confined to subjects corresponding to the respec- 
tive classification of the student. 



It will be seen that Cheboygan offered a single course in 1909 
with two groups of electives designated "general" and "commer- 
cial." In 1916 four parallel courses were offered. Delavan 
offered three courses in 1910 and in 1916 a single course with elec- 
tives. Yankton offered two courses in 1911 each with electives. 
In 1918 seven courses were provided with no electives. As has 
been pointed out, the plan of organization may or may not be 
significant, depending upon how the choice of electives is adminis- 
tered. The tendency, however, is clearly toward parallel curricula 
organized on the basis of meeting the needs of the various pupil 
groups. Those who enter higher institutions are provided for in 
this particular as well as those who enter immediately upon the 
active duties of life. 

The following table shows the number of schools offering the 
various fields and subjects, 1906-11. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 



217 



Mathematics, 40 
Arithmetic, 18 
Algebra, 40 
Plane Geometry, 40 
Solid Geometry, 36 
Trigonometry, 20 
College Algebra, 3 

English, 40* 
Science, 40 
Astronomy, 5 
Biology, 7 
Botany, 34 
Zoology', 22 
Physics, 40 
Chemistry, 37 
Physical Geography, 33 
Physiology, 26 
Geology, 4 
General Science, 1 

Social Studies, 40 
Ancient History, 37 
Medieval and Modern History, 34 
English History', 24 
American History, 37 
Civics, 33 
Economics, 18 
General History, 1 



TABLE XXIX 

FORTY SCHOOLS, 1906-11 

Foreign Language, 40 

Latin, 40 
French, 15 
German, 38 
Greek, 10 
Spanish, 3 



Commercial Subjects, 35 
Commercial Arithmetic, 22 
Commercial English, 9 
Commercial Geography, 23 
Commercial Law, 22 
Commercial and Industrial History, 3 
Typewriting, 25 
Stenography, 27 
Bookkeeping, 31 

Practical and Fine Arts, 28 
Agriculture, 4 
Domestic Science, 16 
Domestic Art, 5 
Domestic Economy, 1 
Mechanical Drawing, 1 
Manual Training, 24 
Art, 1 

Education, 10 
Pedagogy, 8 
Psychology', 5 
Ethics, 1 



The following table shows the number of schools oflfering the 
various fields and subjects, 1915-18. 



Mathematics, 40 
Arithmetic, 13 
Algebra, 40 
Plane Geometry, 40 
Solid Geometry, 39 
Trigonometry, 20 
College Algebra, 3 

English, 40* 

Science, 40 
Astronomy, 1 
Biology, 18 
Botany, 27 

•Subjects not specified. 



TABLE XXX 

FORTY SCHOOLS, 1915-18 

Chemistry, 37 

Geology, 3 

General Science, 19 

Zoology', 16 

Physics, 40 

Physical Geography, 21 

Physiology, 21 

Social Studies, 40 
Ancient History, 38 
Medieval and Modern History, 34 
English History, 21 
American History, 37 



218 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



Civics, 34 
Economics, 25 
State History, 2 
Citizenship, 1 
Contemporary Life, 1 

Foreign Language, 40 
Latin, 40 
French, 14 
German, 37 
Greek, 6 
Spanish, 15 
Swedish, 1 

Commercial Subjects, 40 
Commercial Arithmetic, 26 
Commercial English, 16 
Commercial Geography, 27 
Commercial Law, 31 
Commercial and Industrial History, 10 
Typewriting, 38 

Stenography, 38 , 

Bookkeeping, 37 
Accounting, 5 
Business Methods, 9 
Banking, 3 
Salesmanship, 5 
Office Practice, 4 
Advertising, 3 



Domestic Science, 30 
Domestic Art, 7 
Domestic Economy, 6 
Manual Training, 31 
Mechanical Drawing, 5 
Pattern Making, 4 
Machine Shop, 6 
Metal Work, 2 
Pottery, 1 

Household Chemistry, 5 
Camp Cooking, 1 
Forging, 6 
Machine Fitting, 1 
Printing, 3 
First Aid, 1 

Electricity and Applied Mechanics, 1 
Building Construction, 1 
Carpentry, 1 
Home Management, 3 
Design, 1 
Telegraphy, 1 
Home-Nursing, 1 
Millinery, 2 
Art and Needlework, 2 
Laundry and Sanitation, 1 
Household Physics, 1 
Education, 13 



Pedagogy, 13 
Practical and Fine Arts, 39 Psychology, 7 

Agriculture, 22 Biblical Literature, 1 

2. RANGE OF SUBJECTS 

The range of subjects in the traditional fields remains practi- 
cally unchanged since 1900. Increase of uniformity of termin- 
ology, particularly in English, science, and the social studies, gives 
an appearance of less wide range, but such is not the case in fact, 
except in a limited way. In the case of English, for example, less 
attention no doubt is being given to the formal aspects of grammar 
and rhetoric and more emphasis is being placed upon composition 
and the content of literature. Astronomy has practically dis- 
appeared and geology is negligible. The loss through the decline 
of these subjects is more than compensated for by extension of 
subject-matter in other science subjects. The standardization of 
terminology in the case of the social studies has greatly reduced 
the number of the names of subjects without, however, involving 
any actual loss. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 219 

The commercial subjects and the fine and practical arts, on 
the other hand, show great increase in range of subjects. The 
most of this extension has taken place since 1910, as shown by a 
study of Tables IX, XXIX, and XXX. The latter table, par- 
ticularly, shows lack of uniformity in the use of terms, but making 
full allowance for this, it is still evident that considerable extension 
has taken place. Such terms, for example, as salesmanship, 
accounting, advertising, and the like show that the work in com- 
mercial subjects is being extended beyond merely clerical lines.' 

The fields in which greatest extension has taken place are those 
of the commercial and the fine and practical arts.^ We find here 
also evident lack of standardization of terms, but again making full 
allowance for this, it is very clear that the work in this field is being 
greatly extended. Such terms as millinery, printing, nursing, 
design, telegraphy, and the like conclusively show this. There is 
no doubt much similarity in lines of work designated by the use of 
different names. For example, domestic science, domestic art, and 
domestic economy do not always signify different lines of work. 
The first two are frequently used synonymously and all three are 
sometimes so used. It is clear, however, that three general lines 
of work are now recognized. The first has to do with food, its 
values, its preparation, and the serving of it. The second empha- 
sizes the artistic side of home life including decoration, selection 
and arrangement of furniture, and the like. In this line is also 
included needlework of all sorts, millinery, and a study of textiles. 
The third group of subjects emphasizes management in the home. 
This subject is not clearly defined but the point of view is clearly 
that of training in directing all the forces in the home and conserving 
all its interests. As has been said, there is much overlapping and 
terms are used very loosely. It is evident, however, that the 
process of differentiation and classification is going on rapidly and 
unit courses and curricula are being definitely worked out which 
will result in a fairly definite organization of these lines of work. 

The general terms "manual training" and "mechanical drawing" 
include a relatively wide range of subjects. These two lines of 
work have been recognized from the first and the distinction is still 
maintained. The former has been much extended as shown by the 
use of such terms as carpentry, building construction, machine 

1 Cf. Tiibles XXIX and XXX. 

' Ibid. 



220 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 



shop, electricity, and applied mechanics. The greatest extension 
of this work is found in technical schools such as the Harrison, 
Lane, and Crane Technical high schools of Chicago.' Similar 
schools are maintained by other large cities, but since these schools 
are relatively few and are not typical, data from their curricula 
are not included in the tables. 

The following table shows the constants and variables in terms 
of percentages for the various fields and subjects. 



1906-U 

Mathematics 100 

English 100 

Science 100 

Social Studies 100 



TABLE XXXI 

1915-18 1906-11 

100 Foreign Language 100 

100 Commercial Subjects. .. . 90 

100 Fine and Practical Arts. . 70 

100 Education 25 



Mathematics — 

Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Plane Geometry 

Solid Geometry 

Trigonometry 

College Algebra 

English — 

Composition* 

Literature 

Science — 

Astronomy 

Biology 

Botany 

Zoology 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Physical Geography. . . 

Physiology 

Geology 

General Science 

Social Studies — 

Ancient History 

Medieval and Modern 
History 



45 
100 
100 

90 

SO 
VA 

100 
100 

17H 
85 
55 
100 
92 H 
821^ 
65 
10 
2K 

92?^ 

85 



English History 60 

32^ American History 92}/^ 

100 Civics 821^ 

100 Economics 45 

97 J/^ Foreign Language — 

50 Latin 100 

7y2 French 32}^ 

German 95 

100 Greek 25 

100 Spanish 7^ 

Commercial Subjects — 

2}^ Commercial Arithmetic 55 

45 Commercial English... 223^^ 

67 J/^ Commercial Geography 573^ 

40 Commercial Law 57 J^ 

100 Commercial and Indus- 

92H trial History 7H 

52J^ Typewriting 62 J/^ 

523^2 Stenography 67H 

Tyi Bookkeeping 773^2 

473^ Accounting 

Banking 

95 Office Practice 

Salesmanship 

85 Advertising 



1915-18 

100 

100 
973^ 
32^ 

SlVi 
92y2 

623^ 

100 
35 

92^ 
15 
37}^ 

65 
40 
67^ 
77H 

223^ 
95 

923^ 
923^ 
173^ 
73^ 
10 

1A 



•Grammar and rhetoric are no doubt taught more or less, but the tendency to teach these in connec- 
tion with composition and literature has been steadily increasing since IPOO.J^For this reason they are 
not listed separately. 



1 Cf. Prinled Course oj Study Jor Chicago High Schools, 1917. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 221 

Fine and Practical Arls^ Household Manage- 

Agriculture 10 55 ment 7^4 

Domestic Science 40 75 Machine Shop 15 

Domestic Economy. ... 2 J-^ 15 Forging 15 

Domestic Art U^A 173^ Printing 7}4 

Manual Training 60 77 J-^ Education — - 

Mechanical Drawing. . 2}^ 12J^ Pedagogy 20 32J^ 

Pattern Making 10 Psychology 12 J^ 17^ 

Household Chemistry 12?-^ 

3. CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES 

It will be seen by reference to Table XXXI that all the fields 
are constants in the period 1915-18 except that one school offers 
nothing in the fine and practical arts. In the period 1906-11, 
approximately 90 per cent offer commercial work and 70 per cent 
provide courses in the fine and practical arts. Comparing Tables 
IX and XXXI a considerable increase is shown in the number of 
schools offering commercial work. The same comparison shows 
that the increase of the work in the fine and practical arts has 
practically all taken place since 1900. 

The only field not a constant is what is now generally called 
education. In certain of the states this work is emphasized far 
more than in other states.' This field is growing in importance and 
a decided increase is shown since 1900. 

The only constants in the field of mathematics are algebra and 
geometry. Solid geometry is nearly so. Trigonometry was 
offered in 50 per cent of the schools in both periods and has in- 
creased since 1900, as shown by reference to Table X. Arithmetic 
has declined since 1900 and is still on the decline as shown by com- 
paring the two periods in Tables XXXI. 

The reorganization of the work in English which has been going 
on for some time has resulted in a breaking down of the old divisions. 
This has resulted in a decline of formal grammar and rhetoric and 
an increase in attention to composition and literature. It is 
probably true that all teach grammar and rhetoric although these 
terms are frequently not included in explanations of the work in 
English. 

Physics is the only science subject offered by all the schools. 
Chemistry stands next having to its credit 92}^ per cent of the schools 

tFor subjects offered in only one or two schools see Tables XXIX and XXX. 
' Ct. Report Untied Slates Commission of Education, 1916, II, 452-55. 



222 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

in each period. A decided increase is shown since 1900. Botany 
stands next to chemistry and is followed by physical geography. 
Both of these subjects show a decided decline, comparing periods 
1906-11 and 1915-18. Physiology follows physical geography, 
having to its credit 65 per cent of the schools in 1906-11 and declines 
to 523-2 per cent in the last period. Zoology loses 15 per cent and 
is offered in 40 per cent of the schools in 1915-18. Astronomy and 
geology are negligible in the last period. Biology more than 
doubles and general science represented by only one school on 
1906-11, is offered by 473-^ per cent of the schools in the last period. 
The decrease in the importance of botany, zoology, physical geog- 
raphy, and physiology is no doubt fully accounted for by the 
increase in the number of schools offering biology and general 
science. 

No subject in the field of the social studies is strictly a constant 
although ancient history and American history are nearly so, each 
being offered in more than 90 per cent of the schools. Medieval 
and modern history stands next with 85 per cent of the schools for 
both periods. Civics follows with 823/^ per cent and 8734 P^f cent 
for the two periods. All these subjects show decided increase since 
1900, as shown by reference to Table X. The increase in the case 
of European history is, however, not as much as it appears to be 
due to the disappearance of the term "general history." The 
material formerly so designated is now classified as ancient history 
and medieval and modern history. Not much change, as a 
matter of fact, has taken place in the number of schools offering 
European history. English history is offered in a little more than 
one-half of the schools and shows some decline. Economics 
offered in 45 per cent of the schools in 1906-11 increases to 623^2 
per cent in the last period. 

Latin is the constant in the field of foreign language followed 
closely by German. It is a matter of common knowledge that the 
latter has declined rapidly in the last few months and present 
indications are that it will become almost negligible. Whether or 
not this decline almost to the point of extinction is permanent, 
cannot be determined at present. French, offered in approxi- 
mately one-third of the schools in both periods, will be introduced 
into many schools next year. As in the case of German it is too 
early to tell what the final outcome will be. Spanish was offered 
in 73^ per cent of the schools in 1906-11 and in 3732 per cent in 
the last period. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 223 

The most significant fact revealed by Table XXXI concerning 
commercial subjects and the fine and practical arts is the tremen- 
dous increase since 1900 in the number of schools offering these 
subjects. The table also shows the rapid increase since 1910. 
This is shown both by increase in percentages and also by the new 
subjects added. 

None of the commercial subjects are constants, although stenog- 
raphy, typewriting, and bookkeeping are nearly so in the last 
period. Commercial law, geography, and arithmetic stand next 
in the order named with 77^/^ per cent, 67^2 ptr cent, and 65 per 
cent respectively. 

Table XXXI does not present the true status concerning the 
fine and practical arts, due to lack of uniformity in the use of 
terminology. For example, take the terms "domestic economy," 
"domestic science," and "domestic art." They are not used in the 
same sense by all the schools. A reference to Table XXXI shows 
that 973^ per cent ofifer some work in this general field in 1915-18. 
The same is true in the case of the vocational subjects for boys. 
Approximately 97 J/^ per cent of the schools also offer work in the 
subjects included in the general subject manual training. As 
shown by Table XXX all but one school ofi'ered something in this 
general field in the last period. 

Pedagogy and psychology are not as yet very important, but 
an increase is shown from 1900 to 1910 and further increase since 
the latter date. 

4. REQUIRED SUBJECTS AND ELECTIVES 

English is the only field in which subjects are universally re- 
quired. All the schools at present require at least two years 
work, approximately 90 per cent require at least three years, and 
about 50 per cent require four years. This practice of requiring 
English of all students dates back previous to 1900, and the amount 
required has constantly increased up to the present time. 

Approximately 80 per cent of the schools require algebra and 
about 60 per cent require plane geometry. Of this number about 
50 per cent require two years, one year of algebra and one year of 
plane geometry, and the remainder require an additional semester 
of algebra. The number of schools requiring any mathematics 
beyond this is negligible. Previous to 1900 practically all high 
schools required both algebra and plane geometry. The decline 
in this practice has taken place chiefly since 1910. 



224 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

About 50 per cent of the schools require some work in science, 
usually one or two years. Of this number 20 per cent do not specify 
what science is required, giving students opportunity to choose. 
Physics is required in 25 per cent of the schools and physiology in 
about 10 per cent. A few schools require some other science sub- 
ject, but the number is negligible. On the whole, the practice of 
requiring science is decreasing, the only exception being in general 
science. This subject has been introduced only recently and the 
increasing tendency to require the subject is evident. 

Something in the field of the social studies is required in 60 
per cent of the schools. American history leads with 40 per cent 
and ancient history and civics are each required by 15 per cent of 
the schools. The practice of requiring American history has 
developed since 1900 and the same is true of civics. The require- 
ment in the case of ancient history is no doubt a survival of the 
practice of requiring general history. The number of schools 
requiring American history and civics is increasing, and this may 
be expected to continue. The growth of sentiment in favor of 
requiring American history is shown by a resolution adopted by the 
North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges, 
March 22, 1918. The resolution reads as follows: 

It is urgently recommended that a course in American history be required 
for graduation by all secondary schools; that the course be so placed in the cur- 
riculum, in so far as such arrangement is possible, that all who enter the schools 
may receive the benefit of instruction; that the subject matter be selected with 
special reference to the inculcation of proper social and economic ideals; and that 
methods of teaching be chosen and supervised with special reference to the accom- 
plishment of this aim. 

This does not represent at all what schools do actually require, but 
since the resolution was unanimously adopted, it is significant in 
indicating the sentiment of teachers and administrators in secon- 
dary schools and higher institutions. The number of schools 
requiring subjects other than those named above are so few that 
they may be disregarded. 

Some foreign language, usually not specified, is required in 
about 10 per cent of the schools. When the language is specified, 
it is invariably Latin. 

No school in the list considered requires commercial subjects. 
It is rather interesting to note, however, that 10 per cent of the 
schools require something in the field of fine and practical arts. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 225 

While it is not the practice to specify, it is clear that requirements 
for boys and girls are different. 

The relative importance at present of subjects, from the stand- 
point of the number of pupils pursuing them, is not easily deter- 
mined in most cases, since several determining factors enter into 
the situation. First, the relative number of schools requiring the 
various subjects has to be taken into account. This has been 
discussed in the preceding pages, and if it were the only factor, one 
could determine the minimum percentages, at least, of pupils 
pursuing the various subjects. For example, it could be said that at 
least 25 per cent study physics while the minimum for those study- 
ing physiology is only 10 per cent. The second factor here enters 
in, viz., the year or years in the course in which the subject is 
offered. This is discussed in the section immediately following. 
Taking the two subjects mentioned, physiology is usually a first- 
year subject while physics is usually offered in the last year. In 
any given schools requiring both of these subjects, it is clear that 
many more pupils, perhaps double the number, would study the 
former as compared with the number pursuing the latter. Com- 
puting the number on the basis of 10 per cent of the schools requiring 
physiology and 25 per cent physics, it is probable that the minimum 
number is about the same in each case. Another question entering 
into the situation is whether a subject is required of all pupils or 
only in certain specified curricula. For example, a school might 
maintain five curricula and require a specified subject in four of the 
five, while another school having an equal enrolment and an equal 
number of curricula would require it in only one. If curricula 
titles were more definitely descriptive of content, inferences, at 
least, could be drawn with some degree of accuracy. There are 
some titles, of course, which clearly indicate that one or more sub- 
jects are pursued by all who elect the curricula. For example, 
such titles as agriculture, domestic science, manual training, and 
commercial, indicate groups of subjects, at least, which are pursued 
by large numbers of pupils. Another title, college preparatory, 
indicates another group of subjects which are pursued by the large 
number of pupils preparing for higher institutions. For example, 
foreign language, while required by only 10 per cent of the schools, 
stands relatively high in the number of pupils pursuing it. 

Taking into account all the factors it is possible to arrive at 
certain conclusions with varying degrees of accuracy. It is clear 



226 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

for example, that English leads all other subjects. It is offered 
four years, two years is required in all schools, three years in 90 
per cent and four years in 50 per cent of them. Algebra probably 
stands next because it is a first-year subject and is required in a 
high percentage of schools. History of some sort probably stands 
relatively high since the average time devoted to this field is four 
years and something is required in 60 per cent of the schools. When 
one undertakes, however, to determine the relative importance of 
the different units in history, definite conclusions are quite impos- 
sible. American history is required in nearly one-half of the schools 
and ancient history in less than one-sixth. But the latter is usually 
offered in the first year and the former in the last year, and it is 
therefore probable that these subjects are about equal in impor- 
tance. 

From the standpoint of the percentage of schools making require- 
ments, science stands next to the social studies. The maximum 
requirement, 25 per cent, in the case of physics does not mean that 
this subject leads for the reason already pointed out, and it is 
probable that the number of pupils in each of the subjects, physical 
geography, physiology, physics, and botany, is about equal.' 
Foreign language is required in only about 10 per cent of the 
schools, but it is no doubt elected by a large number of pupils. 
This is especially true in the case of Latin. ^ It is offered four years 
in practically all the schools and is nearly always required in college 
preparatory courses. 

In summary it may be said that the order of importance of 
fields and subjects is as follows: English, with emphasis upon 
composition and literature; algebra, history, science, probably 
quite equally distributed as suggested above; foreign language 
(with Latin leading) and increasing emphasis on commercial and 
practical arts subjects. 

5. SIZE AND LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 

It is evident that general uniformity in content of curricula 
prevails in the North Central states. As pointed out in Part I, 
neither the size of a school nor its location seems to have much 
influence except that schools in the larger centers of population 
offer a wider range of subjects. The rapid development of com- 

* This estimate is corroborated'by the Report of the United States Commission of Education, 1916, 
II, 500-4. 
' Ibid. 



ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA 227 

mercial and industrial education is widespread and extends to the 
smaller schools as well as to the larger ones. The latter, however, 
offer a wider range of subjects and also those more highly special- 
ized and more strictly vocational in character. Commercial and 
industrial education is by no means confined to localities where one 
would expect occupational interests and activities to demand these 
specific types of education. Agriculture, for example, is taught in 
urban as well as in rural communities. Commercial subjects are 
offered in the latter as well as in the former, although the range is 
not so wide nor are the subjects usually so highly specialized. 

The fact seems clear that specific community interests and de- 
mands initiated the movement for these types of education. Then 
two influences have been at work to cause the spread of the move- 
ment — widespread interest in commerce and industry, and the 
always prevailing tendency to imitate in matters social and institu- 
tional. The essential unity in the thought and purpose of the people 
of these states is clearly revealed by the fact of general uniformity in 
the character of the curricula of the secondary schools. It is no 
doubt true that less uniformity would in many cases be desirable. 
Smaller schools are sometimes overambitious to imitate larger 
schools, and attempts to imitate result in undertaking to do things 
which are not done well. But the facts are as stated. The Amer- 
ican high school early in its history undertook to perform two 
functions, that of preparing for college, and that of preparing for 
life, and both these functions are still attempted by all high schools 
having a minimum curriculum of four years. As the commercial 
and industrial demands have increased and become more specific, 
the schools have responded by attempting to meet the demands 
through the introduction of commercial and industrial subjects. 
Rural as well as urban communities vary in these demands, and 
small schools as well as large ones have attempted to meet them. 



CHAPTER XV 

CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 

Changes in subject-matter since 1900 have been marked in some 
fields and subjects while in others little or no change has taken 
place. One cause of change, if not indeed the chief cause, has been 
the emphasis placed upon industrial and commercial education. 
The increased attention given to these types of education as shown 
by the multiplication of subjects in these fields and by the increase 
in time devoted to the subjects is also shown by the influence upon 
the subject-matter of some of the traditional subjects. This 
influence, for example, is shown by such terms as business English, 
commercial arithmetic, vocational mathematics, industrial history, 
household chemistry, shop and farm physics, agricultural botany 
and the like. 

In this respect, the changes since 1900 are radically different 
from those which took place before that date. For example, the 
shift in botany from the anatomy of plants to morphology was 
clearly due to professional influence. On the contrary, the present 
emphasis upon agricultural and horticultural aspects of the sub- 
jects, in so far as this emphasis exists, is manifestly due to industrial 
influences. The same thing is true concerning the other sciences. 
The changes previous to 1900 were apparently in no way deter- 
mined by industrial demands but were due to the shift of interest 
and point of view of the teachers of sciences. In the field of foreign 
language the growth of interest in Spanish is no doubt due to 
commercial influences. Attempts are also being made to have 
Latin contribute to the demands for a more practical education. 
Whether these latter subjects are capable of making any con- 
siderable contribution to vocational training is another question. 
The fact is that the advocates of these subjects are attempting to 
have them make such contribution. Further evidence of the 
influence of industrial and commercial demands will be noted later. 

MATHEMATICS 

The influence of commercial demands upon arithmetic is clearly 
revealed by the attention devoted to commercial arithmetic. A 

228 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 229 

reference to Table J will show the percentage of schools offering this 
subject at the present time, and comparison of this table with 
Table I will show the rapid gain made by this subject since 1910. 
The recent textbooks also show the emphasis placed upon the com- 
mercial phase of the subject. An examination of these reveals that 
the old type of subject-matter discussed in Part II has been largely 
supplanted, so far as high-school work is concerned by material 
determined theoretically at least by industrial and commercial 
demands. 

Algebra and geometry have also felt the influence of these 
demands as shown by the claims of these subjects set up in the 
prefaces of the later texts. An examination of the texts them- 
selves, however, fails to reveal any radical change in the character 
of the subject-matter of either of these subjects. The so-called 
practical values which they possess have received more attention 
than formerly and that these values have been stressed is an un- 
doubted result of the vocational movement in education. But 
after all, this has not resulted in any marked change in character 
of the material in either subject. 

Except for the change noted in connection with arithmetic, the 
only real significant change in the field of mathematics is found in 
the reorganization of material. Texts in "unified" or "mixed" 
mathematics are being substituted for separate texts in the various 
mathematical subjects. For example, a three-book series' for 
junior high schools by Wentworth, Smith, and Brown includes 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry. Book I is devoted 
to arithmetic and geometry, Book II to algebra and arithmetic, 
and Book III to algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. A total of 
less than three-fifths of the space in Books I and II is devoted to 
arithmetic and a little more than one-fifth to each of the other 
subjects. The subject-matter of arithmetic emphasizes to some 
extent the industrial and commercial aspects of the subject. The 
quantity of algebra is reduced and the work is simplified. Other- 
wise the material is no different than found in the traditional text. 
The work in geometry is greatly reduced in amount and is also 
simplified. It is in fact reduced to the geometry of form and 
position in Book I and is designed chiefly as propaedeutic to more 
advanced work. About one-half of Book 1 1 1 is devoted to geom- 

> Wentworth, G. H., Smith, D. E.and Brown, J. C, Junior High School Mathematics. Book I, 
II and III. 1916, 1918. 



230 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

etry, a little less than one-third to algebra, and the remainder to 
trigonometry. 

The Breslich texts' is another example of this type of organiza- 
tion. The author claims that the "practical is emphasized," but 
one fails to note any significant change in the type of material 
selected. The purpose of the series is well set forth in the editor's 
preface. 

During this process of reform, mathematics has changed less perhaps than 
any other subject. The text books in algebra have modified but little their list 
of topics or other mode of e.xposition. Most of the later books introduce graphs 
and have graded their problems better and have omitted some of the intricacies 
which were included a generation ago. These improvements are welcome but 
insufficient and if algebra has been conservative, what shall one say of Euclidian 

geometry To those who examine this book from the point of view 

of the critical mathematician, it ought to be said that it is a pedagogical rather 
than a logical organization of general and fundamental mathematical notions. 
Rigor in the pure mathematical sense is not attempted in definitions, axioms, or 
principles. Insight has everywhere been the controlling consideration. Ex- 
perimentation, intuition, and induction are fully employed. 

Another book of this same general type is Evans and Marsh's 
First Year Mathematics} The material is chiefly algebra with a 
considerable number of arithmetical and geometrical exercises. 
There is less material than in the other texts cited above and there 
is no new subject-matter introduced. The book is chiefly intended 
to serve as an introduction to a further study of mathematics. 
From this standpoint the material is well selected and the organiza- 
tion has taken into account the propaedeutic value of the various 
topics and exercises. 

These books represent the new movement in high-school 
mathematics. Two things characterize the movement. The first 
is a breaking down of the hard and fast divisions of subject-matter 
into arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. This 
results in new units of instruction which consist of material selected 
from two or more of the mathematical subjects. The second 
characteristic naturally follows, viz., a reorganization of material. 
As indicated above in the preface quoted "it is a pedagogical 
rather than a logical organization of general and fundamental 
mathematical notions." 

■ Breslich, Ernst R., Firsl-Ymr Mathematics, 1915 (1906, 1909)-, Second-Year Mathematics, 
1916 (1910); Third-Year Mathematics, 1917. 

' Evans, G. W., and Marsh, J. A., First Year Matliemaiics, 1916. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 231 

An examination of a number of texts in both algebra and 
geometry published since 1900 does not reveal any significant 
changes either in material selected or in organization. Certain 
devices have been used in some of the newer books which have 
perhaps aided more or less in better teaching. For example, in 
Reitz, Crathorne, and Taylor's Algebra text emphasis is placed 
upon the propaedeutic value of the subject-matter as it relates to 
higher mathematics and science. Principles and rules are printed 
in black-faced type or italics and numerous historical notes are 
given. Ford and Amerman's Geometry is another example of the 
use of devices to aid the teacher. In accordance with the recom- 
mendation of the Committee of Fifteen, theorems of supposedly 
greatest value, are printed in bold-faced type, those of somewhat 
less importance in italics, and the remainder in ordinary type. 
Historical notes are also provided. 

Except for the change noted in the organization of material and 
the increasing importance of commercial arithmetic, little change 
has taken place in the field of mathematics. 

ENGLISH 

Some of the newer texts in English show that important changes 
have taken place since 1900 both in the character of material used 
and also in its organization. It is interesting first of all to note that 
unified English as well as unified mathematics represents the new 
type of organization. Brubaker's and Snyder's High-School 
English^ is an example. The following is found in the preface of 
Book I : 

The purpose of this book is to unify the teaching of English in the high 
school. English as a school study is more than grammar, more than composi- 
tion, more than literature. It is a judicious combination of these three com- 
ponent parts. 

In the preface of Book II, the following statement is made: 

High school English is here considered a unit. During the secondary school 
period the pupil should become familiar with the structure of the English lan- 
guage by the study of the uncontroverted rules of usages embodied in grammar; 
he should acquire the habitual use of forceful and appropriate language in speak- 
ing and writing by the practice of oral and written self-expression; he should form 
a discriminating taste for good literature by much reading, together with prof- 
itable discussion regarding the form and content of the literature read. This 
volume seeks to be a guide in such work. 

1 Brubaker, a. R., and Snyder. Dorothy, High School English. Books I and II, 1910. 



232 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

As indicated in the prefaces the authors have ignored the 
traditional divisions, grammar, composition, rhetoric, and Htera- 
ture, and have attempted to present English as a unit. In this 
they seem to have succeeded. They have left off labels and 
selected the material and organized it with reference to training in 
composition, both oral and written, and have used literature as 
one of the means to this end and also for the purpose of forming 
"a discriminating taste for good literature by much reading." 
The material dealing with grammar is put in an appendix covering 
about fifty pages. 

Another text of this same general type is Webster's English for 
Secondary Schools} It is made clear by a statement in the preface 
that the author has not sought to unify the work so much as he 
has to make composition the center around which to organize the 
work. 

In presenting English for Secondary Schools it will serve a purpose to state 
the principles that have guided in making the book. It is some years since the 
study of literature gave way to the more practical study of composition in which 
the mass of rules concerning diction has been superseded by a few principles 
designed simply to secure clearness of expression. Furthermore, it is now evident 
that no mere statement of these principles, however clear and accurate it may be, 
is as illuminating to the young learner as a clear exposition of how successful 
writers have done their work. Few teachers would now have the hardihood to 
separate the study of composition from the study of literature and all teachers 
know that the best instructors in English composition are those writers who 
have served their apprenticeship and have been accepted in the world of literature 
as masters of their craft. 

This no doubt indicates the use of literature as a source of material 
in composition but its chief use is clearly for acquiring the technique 
of expression. Commenting further concerning the source of 
material and the motivation of the work he says: 

There must be a definite, concrete problem upon which the student is to focus 
his energy and ingenuity. Among these concrete problems, none are so sure to 
call forth eager active minds as those which have immediate and local interest. 
So that, while the exercises given here are good as models and suggestions, those 
most certain to bring out expression are the ones that every instructor finds ready 
at hand in the life of the community where he labors. 

Frank's Elements of High-School English^ is another instance of 
the use of a title similar to the ones already cited. Like Webster's 

1 Webster, W. F., English Jot Secondary Schools, 1912. 

* Frank. Madde M.. Elements of High School English, 1915. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 233 

text this one is essentially a composition book. Emphasis is placed 
upon oral as well as written composition, and provision is made for 
"dramatic effort in the classroom." This book devotes con- 
siderable attention to spelling and an undue amount of space is 
devoted to grammar. No attempt is made to use literature either 
as a source of material or as a model for technique in composition. 
These texts will serve as illustrations of the movement under 
way to break up the traditional organization of subject-matter in 
the field of English. It is no doubt due in part to the practice now 
becoming prevalent of regarding all instruction in English from 
two standpoints, viz., composition and literature. This is clearly 
shown by the report of the Commission on Units and Curricula of 
the North Central Association.' This report reads as follows: 

The acquisition of ideas and the development of skill, habits, ideals and 
attitudes which the English studies are designed for have reference to the two 
aspects of life — work and leisure, production and play — may be found the basis 
for a vital and economical organization of the English course. The study of 
books of an informational or persuasive character should support the study of 
oral and written composition for utilitarian purposes; likewise the practice of 
literary or creative composition, of reading aloud, and of dramatizing should aid 
the appreciative reading of novels, dramas, essays and poems. The terms 
"composition" and "literature" are used to designate these two types of activities 
in this report and they should represent separate units with equal credits in the 
high school. 

This recognition of "separate units' is not always found in the 
texts but the two terms "composition" and "literature" are used to 
include all of the subject-matter presented. 

Another way in which this breaking up of traditional divisions 
is manifested is in the courses in commercial and business English. 
These courses are primarily composition courses and in this respect 
are unlike the texts referred to above. But in this class of texts, 
grammar and rhetoric are not considered as separate subjects or 
even as separate units. Material is chosen from these subjects and 
this together with the content material is organized as a unit. 
An example of this class of texts is Buhlig's Business English.^ 

Literature has from the beginning been regarded as a separate 
unit. In the case of composition this has become true only recently. 
The evolution of this subject from being regarded as an irregular 
general exercise to its present status has been explained in Part II. 

1 Report of Commhsion on Units and Curricula, North Central Association of Secondary Schools and 
Colleees, 1918, p. 10. 

' BuHLic, Rose, Business English, 1914. 



234 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Its first direct connection with other EngHsh subjects as there 
pointed out was with grammar, next with rhetoric, and finally 
with literature. Titles of textbooks such as Elements of Composi- 
tion and Grammar, Composition and Rhetoric, and Composition- 
Literature show this development. Composition has now come to 
occupy an equal place with literature, and in the most of these 
texts, such titles as First Year English and the like, chief attention 
is directed to composition. The courses in English given in more 
or less detail in the published courses of study also show this same 
emphasis. 

The books bearing the older titles indicate this emphasis upon 
composition. Scott and Denney's New Composition and Rhetoric^ 
is an example. This is essentially a composition text and a con- 
siderable amount of literature is included as a source of material. 
Concerning this matter of topics and composition material the 
authors have the following to say in the preface: 

Composition topics are drawn not only from literature and student life but 
from the vocations toward which the various classes of students are naturally 
tending. The teacher is thus enabled to take advantage of a powerful means of 
interest and incitement in making assignments and to consult the known tastes 
and inclinations of the individual students. 

The same emphasis upon these sources for topics and material is 
indicated in the report of the Commission on Units and Curricula.'' 

There should be a constant effort to relate the work in composition with the 
pupils' experience and interest, both in and out of school. This will include 
drawing upon among other things, his school work and other school activities, 
social and athletic, as well as his extra school work, amusements, home, and 
other interests. 

The history of literature has continued to hold an important 
place in the curriculum. No marked change has taken place since 
1900 in the character of subject-matter. A recent tendency, how- 
ever, is evident to place more emphasis upon literature itself and 
relatively less upon biography of authors. The text by Moody 
and Lovett' is an example of the older sort which contained com- 
paratively little literature. A text quite similar to the above, so 
far as content is concerned, is that by Pancoast and Shelley.* 
Newcomer's book^ places more emphasis upon the literature itself, 

> Scott, F. N., and Denney, J. V., New Composition and Rhloric, 1911. 

' Cf. p. 10. 

' MooDV, W. v., and Lovett, R. M., A History cj English Literoture, 1902. 

•Pancoast, Henrv S.,and Shelly, Percy Van Dyke, First Book in Enslish Literature, 1910. 

'Newcomer, Alfonso Gerald, Enji'ish Literature, 1905. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 235 

selections being used liberally for purposes of illustration. A 
revision of Halleck's earlier work (1900) shows the same tendency.' 
The text- by Rankin and Aiken shows more clearly the later empha- 
sis as the following statement in the preface indicates: 

The chief value in the discussion of literature is gained when the student 
has learned to read the literature under discussion. 

The author carries out this viewpoint by including in the text 
numerous selections from literature. 

As would be expected, numerous classics have largely furnished 
the reading matter in courses in English. Recently, as shown by 
published courses of study, current literature is coming to be used 
much more than formerly. The whole tendency of the recent 
movement in teaching English is away from the formal. Old 
divisions of subject-matter are being ignored, the interests of stu- 
dents are being more fully taken into account, and social demands 
of various sorts are beginning to function in the selection of material. 
Theoretically the correlation of English with other school subjects 
is receiving emphasis but not much, apparently, in practice has 
been accomplished. 

SCIENCE 

The extremely formal types of subject-matter in the various 
sciences referred to in Part II resulted in widespread dissatisfaction 
with science-teaching. Evidence of this is found in the decline of 
interest particularly in the physical sciences as shown by substantial 
relative decrease in the number of pupils pursuing these subjects. 
General dissatisfaction is also revealed by the discussions of science- 
teaching in educational meetings and in some of the publications 
dealing with the pedagogy of science subjects. As a result of this, 
an attempt has been made to eliminate one of the chief causes of 
highly specialized courses in each of the sciences by organizing 
courses in general science. This movement had its beginning about 
1905 and has made considerable progress since that time. Table 
XXIX shows that only one school offered such a course while 
Table XXX contains nineteen schools offering the subject. 

It is very obvious that the movement so far as it has affected 
educational practice is of very recent origin and at the present time 
more than half of the schools provide no such course. It should be 

1 Halleck. Reuben Post, New English Literature, 1913. 

2 Rankin. Thomas E., and Aiken, Wilfred A., English Literature, 1917. 



236 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

noted also that even in the schools which offer a course in general 
science, the traditional units as botany, physics, and the like are 
still provided. The texts in this subject thus far published are 
manifestly not intended to supplant the texts in the different science 
subjects, but are intended rather to serve as an introduction to 
them. In this respect, the general science texts differ from the 
texts in English and mathematics referred to in previous sections 
of this chapter. Several texts have been published since 1910 which 
purport to ignore the traditional divisions and which claim to 
present subject-matter chosen with reference to definite educative 
values. At first glance, these books remind one of the older type 
of organization called natural history. It requires but a superficial 
examination, however, to reveal the difference. In spite of the 
fact that they are books dealing with general science, each is 
written more or less from the point of view of the particular science 
in which the author was trained. All are not open to this charge 
in the same degree, but the fact does hold true of all of them. In 
view of this, as would be expected, the various texts differ widely 
as to character of subject-matter and plan of organization. The 
books also differ as to the purpose of such a course. Not all the 
books reveal either in the preface or context the point of view as to 
purpose while in others the purpose is stated or clearly manifest. 

Snyder's text' is essentially a physical geography. The author 
says in the preface: 

First year science deals with the earth and the sun in their relation to man. 
This treatment has three advantages; it gives the book unity; it gives it practical 
interest, and it offers all the earth science needed to meet such requirements as 
those of the College Entrance Examination Board. 

The reason for including material from all the sciences is stated 
as follows: 

All the subjects of elementary school science — physics, chemistry, meteorol- 
ogy, botany, zoology, astronomy, physiography, forestry, and agriculture — are 
treated so that the pupil can find out for himself what ones he wishes to study 
later in the course. 

Another text- definitely rejects this purpose. In the preface 
the following statement is made: 

This book is written in the belief that science instruction in the first year 
high school should not aim primarily to survey the entire field of nature and 

' Snyder, William H., First Year Science, 1914. 

5 Hauber. F. D., Fuller. M. L., Prosser, J. L.. and Adams, H. W., First Course in General Science, 
1916. This book is a revision and enlargement of the Elements of Physical Science by the senior author in 
1906. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 237 

present scattered bits and choice morsels from every special science in order 
that the pupil may decide which he will omit. Nor should first year general 
science be regarded primarily as an introduction to a foundation for the special 

sciences he may study later It must be justified by its own intrinsic value 

as a training for life's work. 

The book is predominantly physical science which may be accounted 
for by the fact that it is a revision of an earlier text by the senior 
author who is a teacher of physics. Sharp divisions from the stand- 
point of the several sciences is avoided, the material is well blended, 
and the organization is good. 

Hessler's text^ is manifestly intended as introductory to the 
physical sciences. He says in the preface: 

While physics and chemistry as such ought not to be put into the early years 
of the high school, yet instruction in the simpler principles of these sciences can 
be given in a tirst-year General Science course. The most important part of this 
course will be introductory notions of physical and chemical phenomena but the 
course should include more than this. 

Other science material, chiefly botany and physiology, is included 
but is of secondary importance. 

Another book having a different purpose than Snyder's text is 
Clark's An Introduction to Science.'^ The purpose of the book and 
also the general character of the contents is revealed in the preface. 

The purpose of this book is to start young high school pupils on scientific proj- 
ects which will influence their present lives and which under different guises 
will equally influence for good their future lives. Among the scientific projects 
presented to the pupils are those of the selection of economic means of dietary 
standards; the selection of suitable paints, oils and varnishes for actual daily use; 
the examination of different fuels and their adaptation to furnace and kitchen 
range; the investigation of home and school lighting and its influence on eyesight; 
the utilization of simple labor saving devices to relieve physical exertion; the 
employment of chemical agents to transform useless waste products, such as 
grease and sewage into useful products such as soaps and fertilizers; and the 
application of hygienic facts and theories to school, home and community sani- 
tation. 

The projects show as does also an examination of the text itself that 
physical science is stressed with special emphasis upon chemistry 
of an applied sort. 

One further example' of this class of texts will be mentioned. 
This book is evidently similar in its purpose to the one by Clark, 

' Hessler, John C, Tlie First Year of Science, 1914. 

' Clark. Bertha M., An Introditctian lo Science. 1915. 

3 Caldwell, O. W., and Eikenberry, W. L., Elements of General Science. 1914. 



238 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

viz., "to present a body of science material that will appeal to the 
everyday experiences of young people and that will function in 
their daily living." The emphasis is perhaps more evenly dis- 
tributed over the various sciences than in the other books named, 
thus indicating less than the usual bias of specialists. No attempt 
is made to present a section of this science and of that one as such, 
and pedagogical rather than logical considerations control in the 
organization of material. The book is divided into five parts, 
each part being designated as follows: Part I, "The Air," Part II, 
"Water and Its Uses," Part III, "Work and Energy," Part IV, 
"The Earth's Crust," Part V, "Life Upon the Earth." Numerous 
applications are made to the practical needs of life and the everyday 
experiences of the students are taken into account. 

As has been said the chief thing of interest connected with this 
so-called general science material is the departure from the older 
type of organization of science material and the forming of a unit 
made up of material selected from several of the sciences. This, 
however, has not been the only result. An attempt is made to 
choose material having what is assumed to be a more practical 
value. This means that less emphasis is placed upon scientific 
training and more upon the content value of the subject-matter. 
The quotation given from the preface of Clark's text is an illustra- 
tion of this. That some authors have succeeded in greater degree 
than others is obvious, and it is entirely probable that the degree 
of difference in this respect is not a matter of accident but of 
purpose. 

When we turn to the more recent texts in the separate sciences, 
we find that the authors of these have been more or less influenced 
by the same considerations that have resulted in the modified char- 
acter of the subject-matter in the general science text, viz., the 
purpose to make science instruction less formal and more vital. 
It is true that some of the recent books do not give evidence of any 
significant change in the character of the subject-matter, but many 
of them do, and enough of them to make it clear that profound 
changes are taking place in science instruction. 

The titles of some of these books indicate the change that has 
come about. Examples of such titles are as follows: Practical 
Chemistry for High School Students,^ Practical Applied Chemistry,^ 

' Cook, Charles G., Practical Chemistry far High School Students, 1913. 
2 Allvn, Lewis B., Elementary Al>plici Clitmistry, 1912. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 239 

Elements of Household Chemistry} Practical Physics for Secondary 
Schools,^ Physics for the Household,^ Practical Zoology,* Practical 
Botany,^ and the like. 

Cook says in his preface: 

This book is intended for students in the second year of the high school. 
It is its purpose to bring the pupil into closer contact with the things of everyday 
life, to give him an insight into the nature of chemical processes with which all 
of us come more or less into contact, to furnish him with some chemical knowledge 
of the type necessary for his health and comfort, and thus adjust him to his 
environment. In doing this no attempt is made to treat the subject in a theo- 
retical way. In fact, but little of the theory of chemistry is mentioned 

The mathematical side of chemistry finds no place in a text of this 
sort, but a chapter on "Chemical Arithmetic" is included in the 
appendix. Not all texts fulfil the promises of the prefaces, but the 
author of this book holds rather closely to his purpose. 

One of the early books of the new type of physics is the text^ by 
Mann and Twiss. This is a revision of an earlier edition published 
in 1905. The plan is that of the project or problem. The authors 
state a rewriting of the book was necessary in order to apply the 
principles to subject-matter more likely to be of interest to the 
pupils. "Part one contains material that should be of interest to 
everybody." The problems selected are rather closely related to 
to the experiences and interests of high-school students and call 
for the practical application of the principles. The organization 
of the material shows that pedagogical considerations have con- 
trolled. Another book' of this class is the one by Black and Davis. 
The authors say in the preface : 

In the preparation of this book, we have tried to select only those topics 
which were of vital interest whether or not they intend to continue their study 
of Physics in the college course. Particularly we have decided that the value 
of the information side of such a course lies in its application to the machinery of 
everyday living. Everybody needs to know something about the making of 
electric motors, optical instruments, automobiles, and all those labor-saving 
devices, vacuum cleaners, fireless cookers, pressure cookers, and electric irons, 
which will be found in many .'\merican homes. We have, therefore, drawn as 
much of our illustrative material as possible from the common devices in modern 

^ Sneli, John F., Elemer.ts of Household Chemistry, 1914. 

* Black, Henry, and Davis, Hafjiv D., Practical Physics for Secondary Schools, 1913. 
' Lynde, Carlton J., Physics of the Household, 1914. 

* HlGNER, Robert W., Practical Zoology, 1915. 

' Bergen. J. Y., and Caldwell, O. W., Practical Botany, 19U. 

* Mann, Charles R., and Twiss. George R., Physics, 1910. Revised edition. 

^ Black, Henry, and Davis. Harp-y D.. Practical Physics for Secondary Scliools, 19U. 



240 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

life. We see no reason why this should detract from the educational value of the 
study of physics, for one can learn to think straight by thinking about an electric 
generator as well as by thinking about a Geissler tube. 

The criticism of the formal type of text implied in the last sentence 
is quite in harmony with WoodhuU's characterization of physics- 
teaching found in Part II. The new point of view in teaching the 
physical sciences is evidently not shared by the makers of some of 
the books still widely used. Carhart and Chute' in referring to 
the dissatisfaction with science-teaching have the following to say 
in their preface: 

Attempts have been made to meet this vague dissatisfaction by presenting 
many familiar illustrations of the practical application of physics but with an 
unsatisfactory treatment of the fundamental principles upon which these applica- 
tions are based. As a result pupils reach the end of their study with few definite 
ideas and little knowledge of physics. This condition was plainly so much worse 
than the former one that teachers who had been drawn into the experiment have 
generally perferred to return to the regular type of book. 

How accurately this describes the situation in 1912, it would be 
difficult to say. That it is not descriptive of conditions now, so 
far as returning to the regular type of book is concerned, is evident 
from the number and the character of the newer types of books in 
use in the schools. 

In the biological sciences the same general tendency is apparent 
as in the case of the physical sciences. One of the first texts in 
botany of the newer type was one by Bergen and Caldwell.^ This 
book is marked by an emphasis upon the practical, i.e., the agricul- 
tural and horticultural phases of the subjects. Larger units are chosen 
than in a morphological type of book and are chosen from the 
standpoint of these practical utilities. Plant nutrition, relation of 
nutrition to soil, of parasitic plants to other plants and to man, plant 
breeding, and forestry are examples of topics considered. In treating 
lower plant forms, fungi receive special attention because of the 
practical bearing upon the economic phase of botany. Quoting 
from the preface: 

The elements of plant life and structure are presented synthetically rather 
than by use of special divisions of botanical study which are more helpful to 
advanced students than beginners. 

The book was avowedly written to meet the practical demands of 
everyday life and the organization is indicated by the quotation 

1 Carhart, Henry A., and Chute, H. N.. Primiplcs oj Physics, 1912. 
' Bergen, J. Y.,and Caldwell, O. W., Practicai Botany, 1013. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 241 

above. The fact of promise of similar change in the character of 
text in zoology was indicated in Part II by brief reference to 
Davenport's Introduction to Zoology published in 1900. The change, 
however, came about slowly and no radical departure from the old 
order of things is noted until after 1910. A good example of a te.xt 
in zoology which attempts much the same thing in its field as 
Bergen and Caldwell's book does in botany is one by Higner.' In 
the preface the author says: 

The word "practical" in the title chosen, shows that an effort lias been made 
to present those facts and theories about animals which will have the most practi- 
cal bearing upon the daily life of the student. It refers not only to the economic 
side of the subject, but also to the elements that are of greater intellectual value. 
.... The constant reference to the relations of animals to environment and 
the selection of common animals, especially those of economic importance, for 
illustrative purposes, tend to stimulate the natural interest of boys and giiis in 
animal life. 

The following are examples of the topics discus!;ed in the text: 
"Insects of the Household," "The House Fly and Disease," "Mos- 
quitoes and Disease," "The Relation of Birds and Man," "The 
Relation of Mammals to Man." 

Physiology does not seem to have shared with other biological 
science the influence of this new movement in science-teaching. 
The textbooks used in the high school at least do not show the same 
marked tendency to get away from the old anatomical kind of 
material. The texts used in the grades, on the contrary, do show 
this influence. The coming in of general science has no doubt 
been responsible for the decline of physiology as a high-school 
subject. These books contain more or less material which might 
properly belong in texts on hygiene as also do the botanies and 
zoologies. Even chemistry makes its contribution to health 
instruction in much greater degree than formerly. All of these 
things taken together might readily account for the failure of 
physiology as a separate subject from sharing in the general move- 
ment. 

In the earth sciences, there seems to have been no significant 
change since 1900. Geology has declined in importance almost to 
the vanishing point and physical geography has also declined 
although not in the same degree. It will be remembered that both 
of these subjects underwent important changes in the last years of 

' HiGNER. ROBEEI \V.. Fraclicd Zoology, \9\S. 



242 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

the nineteenth century somewhat similar to the changes which 
have been taking place in the other sciences more recently. The 
character of these changes is explained in Part II and further dis- 
cussion is unnecessary. 

THE SOCIAL STUDIES 

Changes in this field in the character of subject-matter have 
been very important. The emphasis upon commercial and indus- 
trial education finds expression here to a considerable extent. 
History has witnessed rather remarkable modification in the 
character of material found in textbooks. In the first place, this 
change is made clear by a new type of text — commercial and indus- 
trial histories. The second evidence of change is found in the 
character of material contained in the type of textbooks which 
formerly gave little attention to anything except political and 
military history. Some of these books now stress the industrial 
and commercial life of the people, and all recent books give more 
or less attention to social history. Texts in European history 
show conclusively this trend toward a discussion of events other 
than political and military. This change has taken place chiefly 
in the text published since 1910 although some exceptions are 
found in earlier books. An example of the new type of text is 
found in Webster's History of Commerce} This text places a good 
deal of emphasis upon the history of commerce but also devotes a 
good deal of attention to political history which seems to bear 
little relation to the purpose of the book as indicated in the title. 
Two later books^ show clearly the importance attached to events 
pertaining to the development of commerce and industry. The 
point of view determining the organization of material is indicated 
by Smith in the preface as follows: 

In the part dealing with the United States, I have described the industries 
rather than regions and states. The wheat industry, for example, forms certain 
environmental conditions that exist in many states and countries. Therefore, 
I have not hesitated to refer by way of comparison to the great wheat-producing 
regions in other countries. 

This significant statement is found in the preface of Herrick's text: 

Not many years ago Edward A. Freeman's famous dictum "history is past 
politics and politics are present history," found general acceptance, but this 
sentiment is no longer generally approved. Clearly there is at present a desire 

' Webster, W. C, General Uislory oj Commerce, 1903. 

' SuiTB. J. R., Commerce and Industry, 1916, and Herkick, C. A., History oJ Commerce and Industry, 
1917. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 243 

to select those interests of the past which most clearly bear on the present. For 
a considerable time, the tendency has been obvious for both writers and teachers 
to emphasize economic and social history rather than the history of war or the 
evolution of governmental systems. 

One might expect, of course, this point of view in the books 
referred to above, but it is not confined to texts of this sort. 
West, in the revised edition of his Ancient World} has this to say 
in his preface: 

It is doubtful if a textbook of this sort should give room to any incident 
which the student cannot articulate with the life of to-day — or which is not 
essential to understanding the evolution of important conditions which can be so 
articulated. 

The content of the text itself shows that this point of view has 
prevailed in the selection of material. The following topics are 
examples: "Contributions of Civilization," "Industry and Art," 
"Literature and Learning," "Society and Culture," "Religion and 
Morals," "Culture and Morals," and the like. 

The modern history text by Knowlton and Howe^ shows clearly 
the departure from the traditional type of historical material. In 
the preface the authors say: 

An understanding of contemporary Europe is largely dependent upon an 
application of two lines of development which have their origin back in the early 
years of the eighteenth century. The one gave rise to modern methods of carry- 
ing on commerce and industry; the other gave us a new conception of the relation 
of government and governed. In other words to form a proper estimate of exist- 
ing conditions in Europe we must follow step by step the revolutionary changes 
in commerce and industry and the tremendous advance of democracy which have 
in a special manner characterized the history of the past century and a quarter. 

These two points of view evidently control the selection of subject- 
matter. 

Further evidence of this important change in the character of 
history material is furnished by other texts.' Ashley is the author 
of a series of texts published recently which show the change that 
has taken place. Other texts show the same tendency in less 
degree.'' These revised texts, however, show the continued in- 
fluence of the earlier viewpoint in the emphasis placed upon the 
traditional types of material. 

' West. Willtam M., Tlie Ancient Worlifrom lite Earliest Time to SOO A.D., Revised Edition. 

3 Knowlton, D. C, and Howe, S. B., Essentials in Modern European History, 1917. 

' Ashley, Roscoe Lewis, Ancient Cimlization, 1915; Medieval Civilization, 1915; Modern Civiliza- 
tion, 1918. 

• Webster, HnrroN, Ancient History, 191,?; Myers, P. V. N., Ancient History, 1916, second revised 
edition; MoREY, Wm. C, Ancient Peoples: A Revision of Morey's Outlines of Ancient History, 1915. 



244 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

The influence of the same point of view is also evident in the 
case of United States history. Thompson' in the preface of his 
text says: 

In preparing the following pages for students who are about to enter seriously 
on the study of United States history, I have been guided in the selection of 
material and in the presentation of the material by a desire to place more empha- 
sis on the industrial and social activities of the American people than is usually 
placed by writers of textbooks which we may for convenience call political his- 
tories. 

About fifty pages are devoted to growth and improvement in 
agriculture, country life, commerce, transportation, and communi- 
cation. Considerable attention is also devoted to the merchant 
marine and to the development of industry since the Civil War. 
Mussey's^ text shows the same general emphasis. 

The importance of the industrial phase of history is recognized 
to some extent by McLaughlin in the 1913 edition of his History of 
the American Nation? He says in the preface: 

Every passing year seems to add significance to the important general phases 
of industrial growth during the last fifty years, while the relations of government 
to industry and to tasks of social betterment are more and more the subject for 
discussion. This does not mean that history should be written from the point of 
view of industrial growth alone; on the contrary, perhaps never before was there 
such need for understanding political history .... because political activity, 
the state, the government and law are now clearly involved in every problem of 
industrial control, in every plan for social regeneration. 

The text itself emphasizes political history but devotes considerable 
space to social questions [pp. 128-98] and to agriculture and indus- 
trial development in general [pp. 340-85]. Some attention is 
devoted to commercial and industrial topics. Channing's text^ 
shows the same tendency in less degree. Other books^ are similar 
to this one in the relatively small amount of space devoted to his- 
tory other than political and military. 

A comparison of the history texts published since 1910 with 
those published prior to that date clearly reveals the larger amount 
of space devoted to social and industrial history. The older books 
are still used more or less and some of the newer books and recent 

^Thompson. James M., Uistory of the United States: Political, Industrial, Social, 1915. 

2 MusSEY, David S., American History, 1911. 

' McLaughiin, Andrew C., History of the American Nation, 1913, revised edition. See also Read- 
ings in the History of the American Nation by the same author, 1914- 

* CHANNmc, Edward. A Student's History of the United States, 1913. 

' Montgomery, D. H., The Student's American History, 1913. Revised edition. James, James A., 
and Sanford, Albert H., American History, 1909. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 245 

revisions of others, as already pointed out, still stress the old type 
of material. Some of the books which stress the new viewpoint 
most are of very recent publication. It is therefore evident that 
the actual change in the teaching of history is not as radical as the 
latter text would indicate. It is clear, however, that conditions 
are changing rapidly and that changes of considerable significance 
have already taken place. 

Civics as well as history has been undergoing important changes 
in recent years. Dole's American Citizen, published in the last 
decade of the nineteenth century, was the pioneer book in the field 
of what is usually called functional civics as distinguished from the 
traditional text which emphasized governmental forms and ma- 
chinery. This book has already been discussed in Part II. Since 
its publication, authors have been inclined to deplore in prefaces 
the lack of emphasis upon the functional aspects of civics and then 
to neglect to make subject-matter conform to the demands of the 
functional viewpoint. 

Changes of any great importance in the character of subject- 
matter are very recent. One of the textbooks which has had wide 
use in secondary schools is Government in State and Nation by James 
and Sanford' published in 1901. This book places the emphasis 
upon governmental forms and machinery and is fairly representa- 
tive of the type of texts used almost universally until after 1910. 
In fact, Ashley's text^ published that year contains the same 
emphasis. Another text' by Ashley published seven years later is 
a very different type of book and is representative of the new 
viewpoint in the teaching of civics. The following are some of the 
topics which show that emphasis is being placed upon the functional 
aspects of the subject: "Individual Needs and Civic Relations," 
"Individual Needs and Public Needs," "Childhood Rights of Life 
and Health," "Beginning of Civic Training in the Home," "Train- 
ing Citizens in the School," "Degree of Self-Government in Dif- 
ferent Schools," "The Citizen in Business." 

Another text which gives some recognition to the newer type 
of material is a book by Guitteau.'' Some of the topics treated are 
as follows: "Important Aids to the Public Health," "Public Parks 
and Playgrounds," "Public Charities," "Why Government Aids 

* James, J. A., and Sanford, A. H., Government in State and Nation, 1910. 

' Ashley, Roscoe L., American Government for Use in Secondary Schools, 1910, 
» AsHiEV, Roscoe L., The New Civics, 1917. 

* GnriTEAn, William B., Preparation for Citizenship. 1914. 



246 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Agriculture," "Work of the National Government in Improvement 
of Highways." 

A characterization of the two types of texts, the old and the 
new, is found in the preface of Beard's book' published in 1914. 

An examination of the collection in the Library of Congress which mentions 
all of the most recent books in civics fall into two parts, those which are formal 
and legal and those which are sociological in character. 

An examination of published lists of texts shows that most of the 
texts in use belong to the class called "formal and legal." The 
newer texts, however, now coming into use indicate that radical 
changes are taking place in the character of civic instruction. 

These new texts in history and civics do not furnish all the 
evidence of changes going on in the social studies. The most 
striking evidence, perhaps, is found in a type of text that represents 
not only marked changes in the character of subject-matter but a 
new plan of organization as well. Two of these^ will be used as 
illustration of the new movement. Towne says in his preface: 

The work is intended primarily for beginners in the field of social studies — 

for those who may desire a better understanding of social questions 

This, then, has been the aim: to bring before students of social problems these 
facts regarding present day conditions; to indicate certain weaknesses in our own 
social order; to show what has been done and is being done toward the elimination 
of these weaknesses; and to impress upon these students through the presentation 
of such facts, the possibilities of wise, sane, constructive social action. 

The following are some of the chapter titles and indicate the general 
character of subject matter: "Influence of Natural Conditions on 
Economic and Social Development," "Child Labor," "Women and 
Industry," "Unemployment," "The Blind and the Deaf," "Crime 
and Punishment," "The Liquor Problem," "Conservation of 
Natural Resources," "Conservation of Plant and Animal Life," 
"Conservation of Human Life." 

The other book is similar in its purpose but difTers considerably 
in character of subject-matter and even more in method of treat- 
ment. The authors have the following to say in the preface: 

This book has grown out of an attempt to socialize one phase of secondary 
education and to bring it into harmony with present day demands. It is designed 
to meet the needs of an elementary course in the study of society — especially of 
American society. A conscious attempt has been made to emphasize the social 

1 Beard. Charles A., and Beard, Mary K., American Citizenship, 1914. 

' Towne, Ezra T., A Study aj Present Day Social Conditions, 1916, and BuRCH. Henry R., and 
Patterson, S. H., American Social Problems. 1918. 



CHANGES IN SUBJECT-MATTER 247 

aspect of American life, rather than the political or economic. Although three 
phases naturally overlap and are in many cases inseparably interwoven, the main 

stress has always been placed on the social point of view The method of 

treatment has been evolutionary and historical because growth and development 
is the very essence of social institutions. It is also hoped that this method of 
approach and the material presented will help meet the demand for what has 
been termed "socialized history." 

Some of the chapter titles are as follows: "The Life of the Past" 
(evolution), "The Past and the Present" (tradition and social 
survivals), "The Influence of Environment," "History of the 
Family," "The Problem of Immigration," "The American Race 
Problem," "Social Effects of Industry," "The Problem of Crime," 
"The Problem of Prohibition," "Evolution of the Schools," "Moral 
Progress." 

It is evident that radical changes in the character of subject- 
matter and its organization are well under way. The revision of 
texts in history, dealing with the general field, the use in many 
schools of industrial and commercial histories and the new type 
of civics bear abundant evidence of the change going on. Added 
to this is the evidence of the movement to reorganize the material 
something after the plan already referred to in connection with 
mathematics, English, and science. In the field of social studies 
as well as in these other fields, old divisions are being ignored and 
a new era in secondary education is being ushered in. Whether 
this movement in its present form is permanent is perhaps too early 
to say, but that we shall ever return to the old, hard and fast plan 
of organization is extremely doubtful. 

The subject-matter of the foreign languages has apparently 
been affected very little by the influences which have caused im- 
portant changes in other subjects. Modern language, except for 
the increased attention being given to Spanish, does not appear to 
have been appreciably influenced. Latin, so far as the second, 
third, and fourth years are concerned, remains unchanged. Caesar, 
Cicero, and Virgil continue to constitute the work of these years. 
There is some evidence' of an attempt to revise the work of the 
first year but as long as Caesar continues to constitute wholly or 
chiefly the work of the second year, the subject-matter of the first 
year will have to be propaedeutic to this work.* 

' Scorr, Harry F., Firs! Latin Book j or Junior nigh Schools, 1918. 

'Pearson. Henrv C, EsseniiaU of Latin. 1905. Revised 1911, 1912, 191S. Also Sunn, M. L., 
Latin Lessons, 1913. 



248 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

The subject-matter of the vocational subjects has already been 
discussed in part in connection with the discussion of other fields. 
The influence of the vocational movement upon mathematics, 
English, science, and the social studies was there pointed out. The 
character of the subject-matter of the more strictly vocational 
subjects is rather clearly revealed by the titles of the various sub- 
jects. The most of these have come into the curriculum so recently 
that no comparative study in development can be made at this 
time. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SUMMARY 

The forty years included in the study covered by Parts I and II 
have been grouped into periods of five years each for convenience 
in determining conditions and in noting any changes that should 
take place from time to time. In this summary it will not be 
necessary to treat each of these periods separately since no changes 
of importance occurred in some of them. For this reason, except 
in cases where the recognition of these arbitrary groupings aid in 
interpretations, they will be ignored. 

The year 1860 fairly approximates the beginning of the wide- 
spread movement in the North Central states to establish public 
secondary schools. Comparison of earlier and later courses show 
that the schools included therein attempted to fulfil the purpose of 
the Boston school, that of fitting for life. It is clear that four of 
them did not undertake to prepare for higher institutions because 
of the absence of foreign languages. Four-fifths of the schools 
undertook to perform both functions, and this type of high school 
became the prevailing type. Along these two lines high-school 
curricula developed. 

The line was not clearly drawn for a considerable time between 
the work of high schools and that of higher institutions. This is 
shown by the wide range of subjects offered particularly in mathe- 
matics, foreign language, and the miscellaneous subjects. It was 
probably the conscious purpose of some of these early high schools 
to enter the field of higher education, following in this respect the 
schools of Boston, Lowell, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. 

One of the changes taking place in organization of curricula is 
manifested by a change in terminology, the word "Department" 
being superseded by the word "Course." "Classical department" 
and "English department" gave way to "Classical Course" and 
"English Course" and these in turn ceased to be used exclusively 
to designate courses intended to prepare for higher institutions and 
those to prepare for life. This tendency is noticeable at the very 
beginning of our study and courses and titles multiply as time goes 
on. The extent to which this practice was carried on means that 
the schools were no longer attempting to provide two types of 

249 



250 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

education but several types. Theoretically, the purpose was to 
furnish education that would meet the needs of the various classes 
of pupils enrolled in the schools. This practice grew in favor after 
1880 and was a forerunner of the more specific differentiation in 
curricula receiving so much attention at the present time. 

Another change which took place was the disappearance or 
decline in importance of a number of subjects taught in the earlier 
schools. Mental philosophy, moral philosophy, logic, evidences of 
Christianity, biblical antiquities, classical antiquities, and ancient 
geography had all disappeared by 1890 except the first two named, 
and they were found in only one school thereafter. The higher 
mathematics, except trigonometry, ceased to be offered after 1885, 
and that subject declined in importance after 1880. In science, 
astronomy and geology, ranking with botany in 1860, declined after 
1875 and were offered in approximately only one-fourth of the 
schools at the close. It will be seen that, roughly speaking, 1880 
marks the disappearance or decline of those subjects which occupied 
an important place in the earlier curricula. 

Subjects from a new field did not take the place of these dis- 
continued and declining subjects. Less time was not devoted to 
either mathemathics or science, but more time was given to the 
subjects remaining. Also more time was given to both English 
and the social studies. The year 1880 marks the beginning of 
increase of time devoted to these fields. The gain in each was 
approximately one year. 

The increasing tendency to greater uniformity in curricula from 
the standpoint of time devoted to both subjects and fields was 
another change which took place. This was neither sudden nor 
marked. No single date or period can be designated as marking 
the transition. A comparison of Tables A and H and also Tables 
XI and XVIII makes it clear that greater uniformity prevailed at 
the close. 

Lack of uniformity in terminology is very pronounced, par- 
ticularly in the earlier periods. This is especially true in English 
and the social studies and continued, although in less degree, to 
the close. In mathematics, all terms disappear about 1880 except 
those now used to designate high-school mathematics. The general 
term "English," used to designate all the subjects in that field, 
came into use about 1880 and was employed in about 25 per 
cent of the schools at the close. United States Constitution, 



SUMMARY 2S1 

science of government, and civil government tended to give way 
to the term "civics." General history became the term in more 
general use to take the place of several terms used in the earlier 
periods. In science, the term "natural history" ceased to be used 
to any considerable extent after 1875 and biology came in about 
1880. Specific terms such as meteorologj', mineralogy, electricity, 
and mechanics had practically disappeared by 1880. The term 
"natural philosophy" gradually gave way to that of "physics" and 
the latter was used by a majority of the schools at the close. 

The beginning of both commercial and industrial education is 
found in the closing years of the century. One commercial subject, 
bookkeeping, was offered from the first, but it was practically the 
only one in its field until 1890. An occasional school offered com- 
mercial law and commercial arithmetic, but it is evident that no 
serious attention was given to commercial education previous to 
that date in spite of the fact that a few schools offered so-called 
commercial courses. That date, however, marks the beginning of 
the movement that resulted in commercial courses in fact and later 
in commercial high schools. The industrial courses make their 
first appearance about 1885, and this also was the beginning of 
another important movement in secondary education. The 
development of both of these movements, however, belongs to the 
present century. 

The two purposes of the high school, that of preparing for college 
and fitting for life, continue evident in the courses of study. The 
courses intended to prepare for higher institutions undergo rather 
marked changes.' Greek ceases to be a constant and other sub- 
jects are added, including English, science, and the social studies. 
These changes were no doubt due in part to changes in entrance 
requirements and in part to an attempt to broaden the type of 
education and thus fulfil, in some degree, both aims of the high 
school. 

As has been pointed out,^ the other type of courses do not seem 
to have been controlled either by well-defined educational ideals or 
specific social aims. Judging from the titles of courses,' it seems to 
have been assumed that the various fields furnished real bases for 
differences in educational and social values, but no criteria except 

' Cf. courses of study, pp. 20-42. 

' a. pp. 50 s. 

> Cf. Table I. 



252 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

of the most generalized sort are discoverable. When these courses 
are examined in detail, it is found that the descriptive titles are not 
safe guides in determining emphases in subjects or the character of 
organization. Except for the few normal, commercial, and manual 
training courses, differentiation in courses was not accompanied 
by equal differentiation in character of education provided. 

The majority of schools furnishing data provided four-year 
courses. Some of the early ones were not given in sufficient detail 
to determine the length, and these cannot be included in the sum- 
maries. Tables A to H, Appendix, show the number of courses of 
four, three, two, and one year respectively. These make clear 
that four-year courses were in the majority throughout the forty 
years, and after 1885 the ratio is about three to one in favor of the 
four-year course. The study made in 1894 by Superintendent 
W. F. Cramer of more than one hundred courses offered in Iowa 
high schools shows about the same proportion of four-year courses.' 

It should be said, however, that in the present study as well-as 
in that made by Mr. Cramer, many of the smaller schools are not 
included simply because data are not obtainable. This class of 
schools is not so apt to publish courses and the present study has 
revealed that in many schools these documents are not preserved 
even if published. It needs to be said, therefore, that it is not 
probable that three-fourths of the high schools either in Iowa or in 
the North Central states offered four-year courses. The conclu- 
sion is nevertheless justified that four years was regarded, except 
in the early years of our study, as the standard high-school course. 

In the discussion of the order in which subjects appear in cur- 
ricula, it was shown that considerable confusion prevailed. Arith- 
metic was taught either alone or simultaneously with algebra in the 
first year. Frequent exceptions to this, however, are found. 
Algebra always preceded geometry.^ Grammar was usually a 
first-year subject, sometimes being offered as a review subject in 
the last year. Rhetoric was a middle-course subject — second or 
third year — and literature was confined largely to the third and 
fourth years. 

In science, physiology and physical geography are found almost 
exclusively in the first two years, and physics, chemistry, geology, 
and astronomy in the last two. Botany and zoology are more often 

■ Pamphlet published by Northeastern Iowa Teachers Association, 1894. 

' In some cases a third semester of algebra was offered following plane geometry. 



SUMMARY 253 

found in the first two years, but the tendency toward distributing 
them over the entire course is more pronounced than in the other 
sciences. This is particularly true of zoology. Lack of correla- 
tion of science subjects, except physics and chemistry, is evident. 

United States history was usually a first-year subject and 
political economy a last year. European history was on the whole 
a middle-course subject and civics tended toward distribution over 
the entire course. Toward the close the latter subject is found 
more frequently than formerly in the first year, and European his- 
tory shifts somewhat to this year. There is evident lack of sequence 
of courses in this field. A narrow range of commercial subjects 
appears in the earlier years of the curricula and the miscellaneous 
subjects in the later ones. 

The range of subjects ofifered is shown in Tables II-IX. In 
mathematics and the miscellaneous subjects, the range was wide 
in the earlier years. After 1880, the latter subjects practically 
disappear as do also the higher mathematical subjects, except 
trigonometry which declines in importance. Lack of uniformity 
in terminology in English and the social studies accounts for the 
apparent wide range of subjects in these fields. The fact is that 
the range was comparatively narrow prior to 1880. 

In science a wide range was offered throughout the entire period 
with a tendency to reduce the number of subjects toward the close 
without diminution of time devoted to the fieW. 

Foreign language included Latin, Greek, German, French, and 
Spanish, the latter being practically negligible. Latin leads both 
in number of schools offering the subject and in time devoted to it. 
German stands next to Latin in importance. 

The range of commercial subjects was very narrow, an occa- 
sional school near the close devoting considerable time to this 
field. The wide range of miscellaneous subjects offered in 1860 
largely disappears after 1880, and near the close industrial subjects 
begin to appear in a few schools. 

Table X indicates that mathematics, English, and science were 
constants and the social studies belong to this group after 1870. 
Strictly speaking no subject was a constant although algebra, 
geometry, physics, and literature, after 1885, were practically so. 
Of the variables Latin, physiology, botany, physical geography, and 
rhetoric represent the highest percentages of frequency. The 
degree of variability indicated in Table X is accounted for in two 



254 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

ways: first, all the schools do not appear in all the tables,' and 
secondly, subjects that were offered by a school at one time would 
be omitted at another.^ 

The pronounced lack of uniformity in curricula from the stand- 
point of time devoted to fields and subjects is shown in Tables 
XI-XVIII, XIX, and XX-XXVII. Lack of standardization is 
very evident in all the fields and in many of the subjects. In a 
group of schools offering English there were ten different units of 
time devoted to the field, and in science, fourteen schools repre- 
sented nine different units of time. Extreme differences between 
individual schools is shown in the maxima and minima of the 
tables. The increasing tendency toward uniformity is shown by 
comparing Tables XI and XVIII. 

The chief difference between curricula of large and small 
schools was that the former offered a wider range of subjects in the 
fields offered by practically all the schools. Trigonometry and 
other higher mathematical subjects, in the earlier years, belonged 
chiefly to the curricula of the larger schools. These schools also 
offered English, particularly literature, in the earlier years, and the 
modern languages were less frequently offered by the smaller 
schools. This was especially true of French. In science, chemis- 
try and geology were the subjects more frequently provided by the 
larger schools. The larger schools were not distinguished by 
offering commercial and industrial subjects until near the close of 
the century. 

Aside from the difference between city and large town schools, 
and small town schools, there is no evidence that locality had any 
appreciable influence upon curricula. It is true that some subjects 
received more emphasis in one state than in another, but differences 
in this regard were quite as great between schools of the same state 
as between schools located in different states. 

Individual differences in schools from the standpoint of subjects 
offered regardless of location were very pronounced as shown in 
the Appendix, Tables A-H. A greater degree of similarity pre- 
vailed among small schools than large ones. This is explained by 
the fact that they offered a narrower range of subjects and provided 
less electives. The constants common to both large and small 
schools would result in similarity of curricula while the variables 

1 Cf. Appendix, Table A-H. 

' Examples as to arithmetic and grammar eiven in footnotes, p. 76. 



SUMMARY 2S5 

offered in larger number by the larger schools caused greater varia- 
tion among the schools. 

Regarded from the standpoint of time devoted to fields and 
subjects, the individual differences are also very pronounced. 
Tables XI-XVIII, XIX, and XX-XXVIII show this in detail. 
Comparisons of curricula, pp. 20-42, make this clear in regard to 
particular schools. 

In some fields changes in the character of subject-matter is 
practically negligible. Mathematics and foreign language are 
examples. English, particularly literature, some of the sciences, 
and the social studies furnish examples in varying degrees of 
importance. 

The subject-matter of grammar did not differ essentially in 
1900 from what it was in 1860. Literature on the contrary passed 
through three rather distinct stages in its development. The first 
was characterized by a wide range of short selections. The second 
was marked by stress placed upon the history of literature and 
more particularly by the amount of attention devoted to biog- 
raphies of authors. The more general use of classics which marks 
the third stage began about 1885. The classics were grouped into 
two classes — one for critical study and the other for general reading. 

The subject-matter of rhetoric in the earlier years was charac- 
terized by emphasis on the logical aspect of the subject. Later the 
attempt to make the subject function in connection with the correct 
use of English is evident. Much attention is devoted to the correc- 
tion of "bad" English, i.e., to "grammatical and idiomatic expres- 
sions." About 1895 one witnesses a further shift in the same 
direction, viz., increased emphasis upon the relation of the subject 
to composition. 

Composition received apparently little attention in the early 
years of the period under discussion. This has been pointed out 
in Part I. The character of the subject-matter was determined 
largely in the various stages of its development by its relation to the 
other English subjects. The first stage is marked by the stress 
placed upon grammatical forms. Composition exercises were used 
to secure drill in the use of these forms. Drill on rhetorical forms 
constituted the emphasis in the second stage. The third stage is 
characterized by the use of literature as a source of material. 

The biological subjects, particularly botany, witnessed impor- 
tant changes in subject-matter. The religious point of view is 



256 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

somewhat in evidence early in the period. In the case of botany, 
the premedical standpoint is also noticeable. Both this subject 
and zoology later received the anatomical emphasis to the exclusion 
practically of other material. Near the close of the period the mor- 
phological aspects of the subjects predominated. The subject- 
matter of physiology was almost wholly anatomy, the shift of 
attention to hygienic material becoming somewhat noticeable near 
the close of the century. 

Physics and chemistry followed practically the same lines of 
development. The "science of common things" was displaced by 
formal types of subject-matter. The development of laboratory 
work seems to have been influential in bringing about this change. 
The earth sciences as well as the biological were influenced by the 
evolutionary theory, and changes in the character of subject-matter 
are readily apparent. The economic phases of the subjects began 
to receive some attention in the v'ery last years of the period. 
Astronomy steadily declined in importance after 1880 and no 
change of importance occurred in subject-matter. 

European history was largely ancient history in the early years 
and this period continued to receive the emphasis of attention to 
the close. The older texts were devoted quite exclusively to 
political and military history. After 1875 a tendency is noticeable 
to include some material dealing with social life. The emphasis, 
however, upon the political and military aspects of the subjects 
continued to prevail. The stress on United States history was the 
same as that on European history with respect to political and 
military events. The earlier texts show this conclusively. Later 
the Barnes and Montgomery texts devote some attention to the 
afTairs of social life. 

Civics passed through three fairly well-defined periods. The 
early texts were little more than manuals of constitutions. This 
material continued to be used in the second period, but more or less 
statutory material was introduced and governmental machinery 
was considered in considerable detail. The third period is marked 
by a tendency to stress the functions of government. The old 
points of view, however, continued to dominate in the teaching of 
the subject to the close of the century. The teaching of political 
economy falls roughly into two periods. In the first the subject- 
matter dealt with principles or the philosophical aspects of the 
subject. The relation of the subject to moral philosophy is stressed. 



SUMMARY 257 

The second period is characterized by a shift of emphasis to the 
practical apphcation of principles. These principles also change in 
that they are more or less completely derived from existing economic 
conditions. 

The vocational subjects were just beginning to receive serious 
attention at the close of the century and the development of subject- 
matter was not important. 

Important changes have taken place in high-school education 
since 1900 and more particularly since 1910. The scope of the 
work has been greatly increased especially since the latter date. 
This has been accomplished in two ways: (1) by an increase in the 
number of commercial and industrial subjects and in the time 
devoted to these subjects; (2) by a reorganization which results in 
two years being added to the period devoted to secondary educa- 
tion in those schools in which a junior high school is maintained, 
and four years in case of the junior college. The former does not 
mean in many cases an actual increase of two years of secondary 
work since elementary subjects are still included in the curricula. 
The movement does represent, however, a well-developed tendency 
to limit the work of the elementary school to six years and to extend 
the work of the secondary school downward two years. 

The organization of curricula has also witnessed marked changes. 
The two purposes of the high school — fitting for college and fitting 
for life — are still maintained, but the latter functions much more 
definitely than it did previous to 1900. Differentiation in college- 
preparatory curricula has also developed considerably. The so- 
called "Regular" or "General" courses, and titles derived from the 
traditional fields such as "English," "science," "Latin" and the 
like, have decreased in number. In place of these titles we find 
such as the following: "Agricultural," "Commercial Course for 
Boys," "Commercial Course for Girls," "Domestic Science," "Fine 
Arts," and "Stenography." This attempt to differentiate curricula 
to meet specific vocational needs began prior to 1900 but the 
development of the practice has taken place largely since 1910. 

The range of subjects has greatly increased since 1900 and more 
especially since 1910, as shown by a comparison of Tables IX, 
XXIX, and XXX. This increase has taken place chiefly in the 
general field of vocational-subjects. 

The matter of constants and variables is treated in Table XXXI 
and is discussed in the pages immediately following. Not much 



258 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

change has occurred in practice as related to the traditional subjects 
except as brought about by reorganizations of subject-matter. 
For example the introduction of "general" science has resulted 
apparently in a decline in importance of some of the science sub- 
jects. The rapid increase in the teaching of vocational subjects is 
clearly shown. 

The practice of requiring all pupils to take the same subjects 
has rapidly declined. English is the only field required of all 
students during the period 1915-18. Mathematics stands next 
with approximately 80 per cent of the schools requiring algebra and 
60 per cent geometry. The social studies stand third with 60 per 
cent, American history leading with 40 per cent. About 50 per cent 
require science, physics being specified in 25 per cent of the schools. 
Few schools require foreign language and none specify commercial 
subjects as a requirement. Approximately 10 per cent require 
something in the field of the fine and practical arts. 

The changes that have been pointed out are important, but the 
most significant readjustments relate to the character of subject- 
matter and its organization. Subject-matter has been differentiated 
in the commercial field and in the fine and practical arts. New 
types of material have been introduced into the traditional sub- 
jects. This latter change has been radical particularly in the 
sciences and the social studies, and the influence has been felt, 
though less marked, in English. The subject-matter of mathe- 
matics has not apparently undergone any important change and 
the same is true of foreign language. 

The tendency to get away from the traditional organization of 
subject-matter is evident. Unified mathematics and general 
science are examples of this, the development of the latter subject 
being particularly significant. English furnishes another example. 
This is shown not only by the titles of textbooks and the point of 
view of authors revealed in prefaces, but also by the emphases 
employed and the organization of the subject-matter itself. The 
tendency to disregard the traditional types of organization and to 
unify subject-matter is also seen in the social studies. Courses in 
social problems are being introduced and textbooks having this 
type of organization are coming into use. 

The last decade, roughly speaking, has witnessed the develop- 
ment of these tendencies both as to the character of subject-matter 
and its organization. The preceding decade, and, to much less 



SUMMARY 259 

extent, the last years of the nineteenth century present evidence of 
important impending changes. The actual readjustments, how- 
ever, particularly in subject-matter and its organization have taken 
place chiefly since 1910. There seems to be abundant evidence 
that this movement to extend the scope of secondary education 
and to make it more vital is destined to continue until permanent 
readjustments shall have been made. 



APPENDIX 

The following tables show the names of the towns and cities, 
the length in years of the courses, and the date of each. The 
figures indicate the time in years devoted to the several subjects 
and fields. 



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291 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Authorities and Sources 
I 

Aurner, Clarence Ray. History of Education in Iowa, 1915. Chapters xix-xxii. 
A good account of secondary education in Iowa. Curricula in considerable 
detail. 

Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education, XIX (1870), 465-576. Con- 
tains curricula, both elementary and secondary, for the late 60's. 

Bennett, Charles E., and Bristol, George P. The Teaching of Latin and Greek 
in the Secondary School, 1899, pp. 50-54, 111-24. Some historical material. 

Education in Indiana. Information concerning the establishment of high schools. 

Bourne, Henry E. The Teaching of History and Civics, 1912. Chapter iv. 
General treatment of the development of subject-matter. 

Brown, Elmer E. The Making of Our Middle Schools: An Account of the Develop- 
ment of Secondary Education in the United States, 1902. Chapter xiv. 
Good account of the early high schools. 

Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English in 
the Elementary and the Secondary School, 1903. Ch.-;pter iv. Discussion of 
the development of subject-matter in secondary English. 

Dexter, Edwin G. A History of Education in the United Stales, 1904. Chapter 
xii. A brief treatment of secondary education. 

Handschin, C. H. The Teaching of Modern Languages in the United States, 
1913. Some good material on subject-matter. 

Mann, C. R. The Teaching of Physics, 1912. Chapters ii, iii, and iv. Some 
historical material. 

Monroe, Paul. A Cyclopedia of Education, 1911. I, 92; III, 51. Brief his- 
torical accounts of subject-matter. 

Report of the United Stales Commissioner of Education, 1886-87, pp. 534-50, 
631-41; 1896-97, II, 1886-94; 1916, II, 447. Good material dealing with 
high-school subjects in first two citations. Statement of the number of 
secondary schools, public and private, in the last one. 

Smith, David E. The Teaching of Geometry, 1911. Chapters vi-vii. Some 
discussion of the development of subject-matter. 

Woodhull, John F. "The Teaching of Physical Science," Teachers College 
Record, XI (January, 1910), 5-26. Good historical sketch of the development 
of subject-matter. 

II 
The following are the sources for data used in Appendix, Tables A-J. They 

contain high-school courses of study and are valuable in furnishing details con- 
cerning the subjects offered. Considerable material is also included dealing 

with subject-matter. 

Central High School, Aberdeen, South Dakota: Announcement and Course of Study, 
1915. Leaflet. 

292 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 

Course of Study of the Public Schools, Aberdeen, South Dakota, 1891, pp. 20-21. 

Manual of the Aberdeen {South Dakota) City Schools, 1910-11, pp. 27-38. 

Announcement of the Public Schools, Addison, Michigan, 1895-96, p. 8. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Adel, Iowa, 1896, p. 16. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Adrian, Missouri, 1896-97, p. 15. 

Report of the Officers and Pupils of the Adrian, Michigan, Public Schools, 1856-57, 

p. 34. 
Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan, 1875. 

Adrian, p. 301. Ann Arbor, p. 311. 
Rules and Rcgidations and Course of Study, Adrian, Michigan, 1895, p. 58. 
Course of Instruction for the Akron, Ohio, High School, 1917. Leaflet. 
Course of Study and Manual of Instruction for the Public Schools of Akron, Ohio, 

1908, pp. 191-216. 
Public School Bulletin, Albert Lea, Minnesota, 1916, pp. 10-25. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools, AWiance, Nebraska, 

1890, p. 14. 
American Journal of Education, XIX, 535-36. 
Catalog of the Ann Arbor (Michigan) High School for the Academic Year, 1908-09, 

pp. 30-31. 
Catalog of the Ann Arbor {Michigan) High School for the Year 1915, pp. 24-36. 
Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan, 1855- 

56-57. Ann Arbor. Report of LTnion Schools, pp. 440-41. 
Annual Catalog District Schools, Appleton, Wisconsin, 1891-92, pp. 15-18. 
Annual Catalog of the Public Schools, Appleton, Wisconsin, 1886-87, pp. 17-19. 
Appleton {Wisconsin) Public Schools: Course of Study, 1911, pp. 32-36. 
Ibid., 1916, pp. 38-43. 

Catalog of Public Schools, Appleton, Wisconsin, 1897, pp. 57-62. 
Rules and Regulations and Revised Course of Study, Appleton, Wisconsin, 1876, 

p. 18. 
Outline of Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Ashland, Nebraska, 1881, 

p. 8. 
Manual of Public Schools, Attica, Indiana, 1897, p. 64. 
Report and Manual of the Public Schools, Attica, Indiana, 1895, p. 45. 
Manual of the Public Schools, Auburn, Indiana, 1894-95, p. 9. 
Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools, Auburn, Indiana, 1882-83, pp. 9-10. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Aurora, Illinois, 1894, pp. 25-26. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regtdations, Baraboo, Wisconsin, 1887, p. 20. 
Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan (Battle 

Creek), 1859, p. 254. 
Bedford (Indiana) Graded Schools, 1875, p. 2. 
Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Wisconsin (Beloit), 

1869, p. 104. 
Rules and Regulations and Graded Course of Study, Boone, Iowa, 1896, pp. 103-6. 
Course of Study, Burlington, Iowa, 1917. Leaflet. 

Course of Study of City Schools, Cadillac, Michigan, 1895-96, p. 12. 

Public Schools of City of California, Missouri, 1883-84, p. 38. 

Course of Study and Rides and Regtdations, Calumet, Michigan, 1895-96, p. 78. 



294 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

General Rules and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Calumet, Michigan, 

1916, pp. 18-26. 
Public Schools, Calumet, Michigan, 1906, pp. 76-88. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Canal Fulton, Ohio, 1892, p. 12. 
Rules, Regulations and Course of Study, Casson, Minnesota, 1893, p. 3i. 
Report Board of Education, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, p. 14. 
Catalog of the Public Schools, Cheboygan, Michigan, 1909-10, pp. 14-15. 
Course of Study of the Cheboygan (Michigan) High School, 1916. Leaflet. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Chicago, Illinois, 1872, p. 220. 
Ibid., 1883, p. 21. 

Report Board of Education, Chicago, Illinois, 1862. 
Ibid., August, 1892. 

Annual Report Board of Education, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1868, p. 153. 
Ibid., 1879, pp. 304-6. 

Annual Report of Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1887, II, 145-47. 
Annual School Report, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1857, pp. 123-24. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio, 1875, pp. 18-27. 
Ibid., 1876, pp. 69-73. 
Ibid., 1891. 

Annual School Report, Cleveland, Ohio, 1869, pp. 62-64. 

Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, Coldwater, Michigan, 1859, p. 260. 
Thirty-eighth Annual Report of the Columbia (Missouri) Public Schools, 1910-11, 

pp. 18-26. 
Forty-fourth Annual Report of the Public Schools, Columbia, Missouri, 1916, 

pp. 40-50. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Columbus, Ohio, 1873, pp. 84-91. 
Ibid., 1878, II, 45-46. 
Ibid., 1889, pp. 222-23. 
Ibid., 1897, pp. 228-29. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Cresco, Iowa, 1888, p. 11. 
Catalog and Manual of Public Schools, Crookston, Minnesota, 1896-97, pp. 71-75. 

Annual Report Board of Education, Danville, Illinois, 1895, p. 35. 

Annual Report of the Public Schools, Danville, Illinois, 1871, pp. 26-27. 

Ibid., 1881, p. 14. 

Ibid., 1888, p. 14. 

Course of Study and Requirements for Graduation, Danville (Illinois) High School, 

1916. Leaflet. 
Courses of Study and Plan of Work, Danville, Illinois, 1898, pp. 4-5. 
Danville (Illinois) High School Announcement and Course of Study, ^1909-10, 

pp. 7-15. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Dayton, Ohio, 1875, pp. 248-50. 
Ibid., 1878, pp. 235-37. 
Ibid., 1883-84, pp. 169-70. 
Ibid., 1886, pp. 169-70. 
Ibid., 1886, pp. 169-70. 

Report of the Public Schools, Decatur, Illinois, 1870, pp. 22-27. 
Announcement of the Delavan (Wisconsin) High School, 1917. Leaflet. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 295 

Catalog of the Public Schools, Delavan, Wisconsin, 1893, pp. 26-28. 

Course of Study of the Delavan High School, Delavan, Wisconsin, 1910-11. Leaflet. 

Regulations and Course of Study (North) Des Moines, Iowa, 1895-96, p. 30. 

Annual Report of Board of Education, Detroit, Michigan, 1868, p. 57. 

Catalog of the Detroit (Michigan) High Schools, 1909-11, pp. 42-47. 

Hand-Book of the Detroit {Michigan) High Schools, 1917-18, pp. 34-81. 

Report of President Board of Education, Detroit, Michigan, 1859, pp. 23-24. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education and Course of Study, City of Elgin, 

Illinois, 1916, pp. 74-114. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education, City of Elgin, Illinois, 1910, pp. 114-32. 
Elkhart (Indiana) High School, 1915-16. Leaflet. 
Elkhart (Indiana) Public Schools; With Suggestions and Directions to Teachers, 

1907, pp. 117-39. 

Annual Report City of Emporia, Kansas, 1885, p. 42. 

Evanston (Illinois) Township High School, 1907-8, pp. 7-19. 

Ibid., 1917, pp. 23-46. 

Annual Report of the Public Schools, Evansville, Indiana, 1888, p. 54. 

Revised Course of Study, Evansville, Indiana, 1896, pp. 6-7. 

Regulations and Course of Study, Evansville, Wisconsin, 1897, p. 45. 

City Schools of Fairbury, Nebraska, 1907. Leaflet. 

Manual of Public Schools, Fairbury, Nebraska, 1889-90, pp. 19-21. 

Manual of Public Schools, Fargo, North Dakota, 1885, pp. 39-40. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Flandreau, South Dakota, 1894, p. 12. 

Rules, Regulations and Course of Study, Forrest, Illinois, 1885, p. 17. 

Annual Report of City Schools, Fort Scott, Kansas, 1892, pp. 59-61. 

Manual of Board of Education and Course of Study, Fort Scott, Kansas, 1883, p. 3. 

Course of Study in the High School, Fort Wayne, Indiana, 1895, p. 10. 

Program of Studies of the Fort Wayne (Indiana) High and Manual Training School, 

1910. Leaflet 
Ibid., 1916. Leaflet. 

Rules, Regulations and Course of Study, Fredonia, Kansas, 1896, p. ii. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Fremont, Nebraska, 1892, pp. 61-66. 

Course of Study and Catalog of Pupils, Galena, Illinois, 1879, p. 23. 

Annual Report Public Schools, Galesburg, Illinois, 1865, p. 9. 

Outline of Course of Study and Regulations for the Government of the Schools, Gene- 

seo, Illinois, 1887, p. 14. 
Catalog of the Public Schools, Girard, Illinois, 1900, p. 5. 

Annual Report Board of Education, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1880, pp. 67-73. 
Ibid., 1891, p. 118. 
Ibid., 1896, p. 166. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Greenview, Illinois, 1887, pp. 18-19. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Harveysburg, Ohio, 1891, pp. 12-13. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Hebron, Nebraska, 1893, p. 13. 
Annual Report and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Hutchinson, Kansas, 

1908, p. 98. 

Course of Study, Hutchinson (Kansas) High School. Typewritten copy. 



296 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Indianola, Iowa, 1899, pp. 30-31. 

Announcement and Course of Study, Ionia {Michigan) High School, 1917. Leaflet. 

Manual of the Ionia {Michigan) Public Schools, 1910-11, pp. 30-10. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 345-47. (Creston, Iowa.) 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 282-84. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 295-96. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 316. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 235. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 286-87. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 301-2. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 304. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 299. 

History of Education in Iowa, III, 314-15. 

Annual Report of the Public Schools, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1878-79, p. 76. 

Ibid., 1896-97, p. 43. 

Annual Report of the Superintendent of Schools, Jacksonville, Illinois, 1869, p. 50. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Jamestown, Ohio, 1896, pp. 19-20. 

Rules and Regulations, Janesville, Minnesota, 1891, p. 13. 

Annual Report, Rules and Regulations, and Course of Study, Joliet, Illinois, 1894- 

95, p. 78. 
Report of Superintendent, Joliet, Illinois, 1873, pp. 51-52. 

Catalog of Officers and Teachers of the Public Schools, Kalamazoo, Michigan, 

1864-65, pp. 14-16. 
Annual Report of the Public Schools, Kankakee, Illinois, 1890, pp. 37-38. 
Ibid., 1906, pp. 34-37. 
Ibid., 1916. 

Rules and Regulations of the Public School, Kankakee, Illinois, 1875, p. 10. 
Annual Report of the City Schools, Kansas City, Missouri, 1883-84, pp. 119-20. 
New Trier {Kenilworth, Illinois) Township High School Year Book, 1910, pp. 

13-61. 
Ibid., 1915-16, pp. 23-66. 

Revised Course of Study and General Regulations, Keokuk, Iowa, 1892-93, pp. 5-7. 
Superintendent's Report and Rules and Regulations, Knoxville, Illinois, 1900, pp. 

20-21. 

Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools, Lacon, Illinois, 1856, p. 4. 

Public Schools, La Crosse, Wisconsin: Course of Study, Rules and Regulations, 

1908, pp. 91-104. 
Report and Manual of the Public Schools, Lafayette, Indiana, 1887, pp. 46-48. 
Graded Course of Study, Lanark, Illinois, 1894, p. 15. 
Course of Study and Text-Books for the Lansing, Michigan, High School, 1917. 

Leaflet. 
Lansing, Michigan, Public Schools Course of Study, 1910, pp. 71-88. 
Calendar, Laporte, Indiana, Public Schools, 1875, pp. 30-31. 
Ibid., 1879, 1885, p. 36. 

Calendar Public Schools, Laporte, Indiana, 1883, p. 32. 
Public Schools, Laporte, Indiana, 1910, pp. 39-57. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 297 

Circular of Infortnalioit, Township High School, La Sallc-Perii, Illinois, 1915-16. 

Leaflet. 
Eighth Annual Catalog of the Township High School, La Salle and Peru, Illinois, 

1906-7, pp. 15-53. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Lawrence, Kansas, 1884, p. 48. 
Annual Report Superintendent of Schools, Leavenworth, Kansas, 1867, pp. 43-44. 
Course of Study Leavenworth, Kansas, High School, 1910. Typewritten copy. 
Ibid., 1918. Leaflet. 

Manual of Public Schools, Lebanon, Ohio, 1897, p. 63. 

Report, Courses of Study, and Rules and Regulations, Lebanon, Indiana, 1894, p. 29. 
Rules and Regulations and Courses of Study, Le Roy, Minnesota, 1S90. 
Ibid., 1859, p. 294. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Lewiston, Illinois, 1896, p. 24. 
Manual of Public Schools, Lexington, Missouri, 1897-98. 
Annual Report of Board of Education, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1896-97, pp. 50-51. 
Annual Report Superintendetit of Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1882, pp. 

14-15. 
Course of Study and General Regulations, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1893, p. 8. 
Manual of Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1888, pp. 52-54. 
Rules of the Board of Education, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1877, p. 34. 

Rules and Regulations, Macomb, Illinois, 1875, p. 11. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Macomb, Illinois, 1898-99, p. 38. 

Annual Report Board of Education, Madison, Wisconsin, 1876, p. 32. 

Ibid., 1883, pp. 52-53. 

Ibid., 1898, pp. 56-57. 

Report Board of Education, Madison, Wisconsin, 1863. 

Ibid., 1867. 

Ibid., 1892, pp. 39-41. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Mantua, Ohio, 1896, p. 13. 

Manual and Course of Study and General Information of the Marinette {Wisconsin) 

High School, 1916, pp. 16-35. 
Marinette Free High School, Marinette, Wisconsin: A Manual of the Course of 

Study and General Information, 1910, pp. 3-16. 
Manual of Public Schools, Marion, Illinois, 1899, p. 61. 
Report of the Public Schools, Markle, Indiana, 1896, p. 19. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Mattoon, Illinois, 1877, p. 5. 
Regulations and Courses of Study, Maumee, Ohio, 1898, p. 14. 
Course of Study of the Miamisburg (Ohio) High School, 1909. Leaflet. 
Rules Governing the Choosing of Courses of Study and Courses of Study of the 

Miamisburg (Ohio) High School, 1916. Leaflet. 
Report Superintendent of Public Instruction, Michigan, 1855-56-57, p. 465. 
Catalog Containing Course of Study, etc., Middleville, Michigan. 
Annual Report of School Board, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1874, p. Ix. 
Ibid., 1884, p. 54. 

Rules and Regulations, Minerva, Ohio, 1894, p. 14. 
Annual Report and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Mitchell, South Dakota, 

1916-17, pp. 14-51. 



298 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Annual Report of the Public Schools of Mitchell, South Dakota, 1911-12, pp. 10-12. 

Annual Report of Moline, Illinois, Public Schools, 1881, p. 24. 

Annual Report of Public Schools, Moline, Illinois, 1891, p. 38. 

Announcement of the Public Schools, Monroe, Michigan, 1896, p. 29. 

Catalog of the Public Schools of Monroe, Wisconsin, 1907-8, pp. 75-78. Coune 
of Study of the Monroe, Wisconsin, High School (Junior-Senior), 1917. Leaf- 
let. 

Manual of Graded Course of Study, Monroe, Wisconsin, 1891, pp. 27-28. 

Catalog and Report of the Public Schools, Monticello, Illinois, 1895, p. 42. 

Course of Study and Second Annual Catalog, Monticello, Illinois, 1881, p. 21. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations, Moron, Kansas, 1896, p. 11. 

Manual of High School, Mount Gilead, Ohio, 1892, pp. 20-21. 

Announcement of the Public Schools of Muscatine, Iowa, 1910-11, pp. 14-17. 

Course of Study High School, Muscatine, Iowa 1917. Leaflet. 

Annual Report of the Public Schools, Napoleon, Ohio, 1888, p. 29. 
Annual Report of the Public Schools, Neosha, Missouri, 1889-90, p. 50. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Newark, Ohio, 1896-97-98, p. 53. 
Bi-Annual Report of Superintendent of Schools, Newark, Ohio, 1881-82, p. 57. 
Annual Report Board of Education, New Haven, Conn. 1859, p. 31. 
Proceedings Board of Education, Normal, Illinois, June, 1870. A list of subjects 

taught in the high school arranged according to years and terms. 
Course of Study, Norwalk, Ohio, 1915. Leaflet. 

Revised Regulations and Course of Study, Oak Park, Illinois, 1882, pp. 27-29. 
Annual Report and Manual of Public Schools, Oberlin, Ohio, 1873, pp. 7-9. 
Ibid., 1877, p. 22. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of Public Schools, Odell, Illinois, 1889, 

p. 9. 
Annual Report Public Schools, Olney, Illinois, 1893, pp. 29-30. 
Course of Study of the Omaha (Nebraska) High School, 1910. Leaflet. 
Ibid., 1915. Leaflet. 

Manual of the Public Schools of Oshkosh, Wisconsin, 1908-9, pp. 27-29. 
Ibid., 1918, pp. 33-38. 

Annual Report Public Schools, Oskaloosa, Iowa, 1899, p. 105. 
Manual and Annual Report of the City Schools, Oskaloosa, Iowa, 1892-93-94, 

pp. 67-68. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Oskaloosa, Iowa, 1873, p. 13. 
Ibid., 1878, p. 37. 

Rules, Regulations and Course of Study, Oskaloosa, Iowa, 1884, p. 41. 
Catalog of the Officers, Teachers, and Students of the Ottawa {Illinois) Township 

High School, 1907-1907, pp. 5-13. 
Public Schools, Ottumwa, Iowa, 1918, pp. 42-67. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Ottumwa, Iowa, 

1911, pp. 40-49. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Pawnee City, Nebraska, 1897-98, p. 17. 
Pontiac (Illinois) Township High School, 1905-6, pp. 12-22. 
Pontiac (Illinois) Township High School Catalog, 1917, pp. 12-21. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 

Catalog of the Public Schools, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, 1890, p. 7. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, 1897, 
p. 9. 

Manual Board of Education, Racine, Wisconsin, 1891, p. 60. 

Public Schools of the City of Racine, Wisconsin, 1883, pp. 49-50. 

Report Board of Education, Racine, Wisconsin, 1857-58, p. 73. 

Annual Report Public Schools, Richmond, Indiana, 1875, p. 31. 

Ibid., 1877, p. 15. 

Ibid., 1885, pp. 68-69. 

Proceedings Board of Education, Rock Island, Illinois, May, 1856. 

Saginaw, Michigan, High School Circular of Information and Curriculum of Study, 

1917, pp. 6-14. 
Saginaw, Michigan, High School Course of Study, 1911. Leaflet. 
Annual Report of Public Schools, Sandusky, Ohio, 1889, pp. 80-82. 
Courses of Study of the Sheboygan (Wisconsin) High School, 1910. Leaflet. 
Ibid., 1917. Leaflet. 

Public Schools of Sioux City, Iowa, 1891-92, pp. 49-51. 
Report of Public Schools, Sioux City, Iowa, 1900, pp. 46-47. 
Course of Study of the Sioux Falls {South Dakota) High School, 1910. Leaflet. 
Ibid., 1917. Leaflet. 

Annual Report of Public Schools, Springfield, Illinois, 1890, p. 54. 
Ibid., 1893, p. 65. 

Annual Report Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Illinois, 1867, pp. 26-27. 
Ibid., 1880, pp. 72-73. 

Course of Study, Stillwater, Minnesota, 1897-98, pp. 84-91. 
Annual Report Board of Directors, St. Louis, Missouri, 1871, p. 59. 
Ibid., 1878, pp. 49-50. 
Annual Report of the President and Board of Directors, St. Louis, Missouri, 1882, 

p. 11. 
High School Courses of Study, St. Louis, Missouri, 1911. Leaflet. 
Ibid., 1918. Leaflet. 

Streator Township High School, Streator, Illinois, 1896-97, pp. 6-8. 
School Calendar, Superior, Nebraska, 1892, p. 26. 

Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools, Waterloo, Iowa, 1870, p. 19. 

Course of Study of the Watertown, South Dakota, High School, 1918. Typewritten 

copy. 
Manual of the Public Schools, Waverly, Iowa, 1900, pp. 52-53. 
Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools, Waverly, Iowa, 1888, p. 22. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Wilton, Iowa, 1880, p. 8. 

Course of Study of the Yankton {South Dakota) City Schools, 1911, pp. 55-63. 
Ibid., 1917-18, pp. 63-94. 

The High School, Ypsilanti, Michigan: Annual Announcement, 1917, pp. 15-20. 
The Public Schools, Ypsilanti, Michigan: Course of Study and Rules and Regula- 
tions, 1911, pp. 119-29. 



300 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

III 

Other sources used as supplementary to Section II. 
Students' Manual, Aberdeen City Schools, Aberdeen, South Dakota, 1903-4. 
Adrian Public Schools, Adrian, Michigan. Report of the Board of Education 

(1S90-95), 1895. Details of work in English. 
Announcement of the Adrian High School, Adrian, Michigan, 1898. Contains 

outline of work in English. 
Catalog of the Officers, Teachers and Students of the Alton (Illinois) Township High 

School, 1903-4. 
Catalog of the Public Schools of the City of Appleton, Wisconsin, 1893. List of 

textbooks. 
Ibid., 1900. List of textbooks. 
Course of Study for the Attica, Indiana, Public Schools for the Year 1893-94. Some 

details of work in literature. 
Report and Manual of the Attica, Indiana, Public Schools, 1895. List of textbooks. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of Augusta, Illinois, Public Schools, 

1886. 
Annual Report Board of Education, Aurora {Illinois) Public Schools, East Side, 

1907. 

Ibid., 1917. 
Aurora Public Schools, West Side, Aurora, Illinois, 1907. 

Organization of the Board of Education, Enrollment of Pupils and Teachers and 
Course of Study of the Public Schools of District No. 5, Aurora, Illinois, 1887. 

Report of the Board of Education, Baltimore, Maryland, 1851. 

Ibid., 1855. 

Manual of the Public Schools, Batavia, Illinois, 1902. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of Belvidere, Illinois, 

1888-89. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Boone, Iowa, 

1910. 
Annual Report of the School Committee Together with the Annual Report of the 

Superintendent of the Public Schools of Boston (Massachusetts). 1858. 
Ibid., 1859. 
Ibid., 1880. 

Regulations of the School Committee, Boston, Massachusetts, 1823. 
Ibid., 1827. 
Ibid., 1829. 
Ibid., 1830. 
Ibid., 1833. 
Ibid., 1838. 
Rules of the Schools Committee and Regulations of the Public Schools of the City of 

Boston (Massachusetts), 1839. 
Ibid., 1841. 
lUd., 1844. 
Ibid., 1849. 
Ibid., 1851. 
Ibid., 1853. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 301 

Course of Study of Bttrliiigton, Iowa, 1910. Typewritten copy. 

Ibid., 185 5. 

Course of Study in High and District Schools of Burlington, Iowa, and Rules and 

Regulations for the same. Adopted by the board of education, 1888-89. 

List of textbooks. 

Public Schools, Calumet, Michigan, 1906. 

Revised Course of Study of the City of Camden, Illinois, 1890. 

Course of Study with Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of Canal Fulton, 
Ohio. Adopted November, 1892. 

Course of Study, Carthage, Illinois, 1909-10. Leaflet. 

Sixth Annual Report, 1860. Department of Public Instruction. City of Chicago. 
Discusses the relative value of modern languages. Recommendation that 
more time be devoted to natural sciences. 

Twelfth Annual Report Board of Education for the Year Ending July 31, 1866. 
Department of Public Instruction of City of Chicago. Defense of the high 
school by the superintendent, pp. 46-65. He also advocates reorganization 
of the course of study to meet the demands of the community. The 
German Realschule commended as meeting the demands of modern life. 

Ibid., Sixteenth Annual Report, 1869. 

Ibid., Sei<enteenth Annual Report, 1871. In this report the president of the board 
urges the necessity of meeting the educational need of the industrial classes; 
also comments on the service rendered by the high school as a training school 
for teachers. List of textbooks. 

Ibid., Twenty-first Annual Report, 1874. An interesting statement concerning 
the work done in the high school as compared with the average college course, 
p. 18. 

Ibid., Twenty-first .Annual Report, 1875. Discussion in the report of the two-year 
high schools. 

Ibid., Twenty-second Annual Report, 1876. Historical sketch, pp. 50-60. List of 
textbooks. 

Ibid., Twenty-fourth Annual Report, 1878. Industrial education discussed in the 
report. 

Twenty-seventh Annual Report, 1881. President in his report urges the necessity 
of a law authorizing a tax levy for the support of industrial education. 

Ibid., Twenty-eighth Annual Report, 1882. President in his report comments on 
the demand for industrial education. 

Ibid., Twenty-ninth Annual Report, 1883. Both the president and the superinten- 
dent in their reports urge the introduction of manual training. 

Ibid., Thirtieth Annual Report, 1884. Discussion of relative merits of academies 
and high schools. President in his report discusses the influence of higher 
institutions upon the high schools. 

Ibid., Thirty-second Annual Report, 1886. Interesting discussion of manual train- 
ing. The president in his report opposes the introduction while the superin- 
tendent in his report advocates it. 

Ibid., Thirty-third Annual Report, 1887. A new president of the board urges the 
importance of manual training. 

Ibid., Thirty-fifth Annual Report, 1889. Discussion of the overcrowded condition 
of the curriculum. List of textbooks. 



302 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Ibid., Thirty-seventh Annual Report, 189L 

Ibid., Thirty-eighth Annual Report, 1892. Discussion of work in manual training 

and physical culture. 
Ibid., Thirty-ninth Annual Report, 1893. Discussion of the plan of industrial 

education in the public schools. 
Ibid., Fortieth Annual Report, 1894. President of the board discussed the report 

of the Committee of Ten. 
Ibid., Forty-second Annual Report, June 26, 1896. Discussion of commercial 

education by president of the board. 
Ibid., Forty-third Annual Report, 1897. Discussion of commercial education by 

president of the board. 
Austin Public Schools. Report of Board of Education. School District No. 2. 

Town of Cicero, Cook County, Illinois, 1895. 
Common Schools of Cincinnati (Ohio). Part First: Forty-second Annual Report 

for the School Year Ending June 30, 1872. Part Second: A Handbook for 

the School Year Ending June 30, 1873. 
Ibid., 1878. Part First: Forty-ninth Annual Report. Part Second: A handbook 

for 1879. 
Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Cleveland, Ohio, Public Schools for the Year 

Ending August, 1865. Various supplementary documents dealing with 

school conditions. 
Sixteenth Annual Report of the Board of Managers for the Year Ending 1852. 

Public Schools of the city of Cleveland, Ohio. List of textbooks. 
Thirty-fourth Annual Report of the Board of Education of Cleveland, Ohio, for the 

Year Ending August 31, 1870. 
Ibid., Thirty-fifith Annual Report, 1871. 
Ibid., Thirty-ninth Annual Report, 1875. 
Ibid., Forty-seventh Annual Report, 1883. Percentages shown of pupils enrolled 

in each grade from 1873 to 1883. Also number of pupils enrolled in the 

various high school courses. 
Ibid., Forty-ninth Annual Report, 1885. This report shows the number of pupils 

enrolled in each of the high-school courses. 
Ibid., Fiftieth Annual Report, 1886. List of textbooks. 

Ibid., Fifty-third Annual Report, 1889. Explanation of work in manual training. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education of the Columbus (Ohio) Public Schools 

for the Year Ending August 1, 1879. 
Ibid., 1880. 
Ibid., 1892. 
Ibid., 1893. 
Ibid., 1894. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education, of the School Commissioners and Super- 
intendent, with the Laws Pertaining to the Public Schools of Columbus, Ohio, 

1851. 
Manual of the Public Schools of Connersville, Indiana, 1907. 

Annual Report Board of Education, Danville, Illinois, and Rules and Course 

of Study, 1895. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education, Danville (Illinois), 1902. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 303 

Course of Study and Requirements for Graduation, Danville (Illinois) High School, 
1913. Leaflet. 

Fifth Annual Catalog of Danville (Illinois) Union Schools and Circular of Informa- 
tion, 1889. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education for the School Year Ending August 31, 
1875. Dayton, Ohio, Public Schools. List of textbooks. 

Ibid., 1876. List of textbooks. 

Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Education of Decatur, Illinois, with Rules 
and Course of Study, 1874. 

Ibid., Twenty-seventh Annual Report, 1891. 

Catalog of the Delavan Public Schools, Delavan, Wisconsin, 1894. Courses of 
Study. List of Alumni. Catalog of library. Contains discussion of aims 
and purposes of the high school. List of textbooks. 

Delavan Public Schools, Delavan, Illinois, 1891. Some details of work in English. 

Bi-Annual Report of the Public Schools of (West) Des Moines, Iowa, 1892-94. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Detroit, Michigan, with 
Reports of Committees and Teachers, 1853. In the report the president dis- 
cusses the legal status of the high school. 

Eighteenth Annual Report of the Detroit (Michigan) Public Schools, with Accom- 
panying Documents for the Year 1860. Brief historical account of the high 
school. Causes of opposition to the high school discussed. 

Official Report of D. Bethune, President of the Board of Education, Detroit, Michigan, 
for the Year 1858. Reports of teachers of L'nion Schools and the reports from 
the Committee on Schools and Committee on Teachers. In this report the 
president discusses the "Free Academy or High School" as the "Academic 
link between the Free School and the University." 

Report of the Public Schools of the City of Detroit, Michigan, for the Year 1855. 

Twenty-first Annual Report of the Board of Education of Detroit, Michigan, for the 
Year Ending December 31, 1863. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Duluth, Minnesota, July 31, 
1893. 

Junior High Schools, Duluth, Minnesota, 1917. Leaflet. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education and Course of Study of the City of Elgin 

Illinois, 1910. 
Course of Study in the Elgin, Illinois, High School, 1891. Four-page pamphlet. 

List of textbooks. 
Course of Study with Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of the East Side 

Schools of El Paso, Illinois, 1892. 
Ibid., 1895. Some details of work in English. 
First Annual Announcement with Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the 

West Side Public Schools. El Paso, Illinois, 1895. Some details of work in 

English. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Emporia, Kansas, for the 

Year Ending June 30, 1900. 
Fifth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the Emporia (Kansas) City 

Schools for the Year Ending July 31, 1889. List of Textbooks. 
Evanston (Illinois) Township High School, 1905-6. Leaflet. 



304 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Evanston Township High School, 1894—95. Four-page pamphlet. 

Revised Course of Study of the Evansville, Indiana, High School, 1897. Some 

details of work in English. 
Course of Study of the Public Schools of Exeter, Nebraska, 1803. 

Rules and Regulations of the School Board and Course of Study of the Schools of 
Fairfield, Ohio, 1889. List of classics given. 

City Schools of Flint, Michigan, 1897-98. 

Course of Study with Rules and Regulations for the Public Schools, Forrest, Illinois, 
1894. 

Annual Report of the Fort Scott, {Kansas) City Schools for the Year Ending July 31, 
1892, and Announcement for 1892-93. List of textbooks. Some details of 
work in English. 

Course of Study of the Public Schools of Fort Wayne, Indiana, 1899. List of text- 
books. 

Course of Study and the First Annual Cata'og of Pupils of the Galena, Illinois, 
City Schools Together with Rules and Regulations, 1879. 

Course of Study of the Galena, Illinois, High School, 1896. Two-page pamphlet. 
List of textbooks. 

General Rules and Course of Studies, Graduates, etc.. Galena Public Schools, Galena, 
Illinois. 1894. 

Rules for the Government of the Galena, Illinois, Public Schools with Course of 
Study and a List of Graduates of the High .School. 

Course of .Study of the Geneseo, Illinois, High School. Four-page pamphlet. 

Outline of the Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of 
Geneseo, I linois. Pamphlet. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Gibson City .Schools, Gibson City, 
Illinois, With the Superintendent's Report, 1895. Details of work in English. 

Course of Study for the Public Schools of Gibson City, Illinois, 1889. List of text- 
book. 

Catalog of the Cirard, Illinois, Public Schools, 1900. List of textbooks. 

Annual Catalog of the Officers, Inspectors, and Students of the Grand Rapids, Michi- 
gan, Public Schools, 1860. 

Fourteenth .Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Grand Rapids, 
Michigan, Together with the School Law and Rules and Regulations of the Schools 
and the Public Library, 1886. List of classics given. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the South Side Public Schools of Gray- 
ville, Illinois, 1893. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of Greenview, 
Illinois, 1894. 

Course of Study in the Hannibal (Missouri) High School, 1912-13. 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Harreysburg, 

Ohio, 1891. 
Rules and Regulations, Manual of Instruction, and Graded Courses of Study of the 

Public Schools of Hinsdale, Illinois, 1891. Some details of work in English. 
Thirteenth Annual Report of the Board of Education, District No. 1, Hyde Park, 

Illinois, 1886. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 305 

Ionia (Michigan) Public Schools. Manual and Report of the Board of Education, 

1912. 
Circular Containing Courses of Study, Programs, Rules and Regulations of the Public 

Schools of Independence, Iowa, 1891. 

Annual Report of the Kankakee {Illinois) Public Schools, 1909. 

■Seventeenth Annual Report of the Kansas City (Missouri) Public Schools for the 

Year 1887-88. 
A Manual of the Public Schools of Keithsburg, Illinois, 1893-94. 
New Trier (Kenilworlh, Illinois) Township High School, 1910. 
Course of Study of the Knoxi'ille, Illinois, Public Schools with Rides and Regulations 

of the Board of Education, 1892. Outline of work in English. 
Superintendent's Report and Rules and Regidations of the Knoxville, Illinois, Public 

Schools Together with Courses of Study, 1900. 

Courses of Study of the Public Schools of Lacon, Illinois, 1894. 

Third Annual Report of the Board of Education of the Lyons Township High School 

(La Grange) Cook County, Illinois, 1891. 
Ibid., Fourth Annual Report, 1892. 
Ibid., Eighth Annual Report, 1896. 
Ibid., Ninth Annual Report, 1897. 
Ibid., Eleveyith Annual Report, 1899. 

Fourth Annual Report of the Lakeview (Illinois) High School, 1878. 
Second Annual Report of the Trustees of the Lakeview (Illinois) High School, 1876. 
A Graded Course of Study of the Lanark, Illinois, Public Schools, 1894. 
Calendar of the Laporle (Indiana) Public Schools for 1880-81. 
Ibid., 1882-83. 
Report of the Public Schools of Laporte (Indiana) for the Year Ending June 24, 1889. 

List of textbooks. 
Ibid., 1891-92. Some details of work in English. Outline of high-school work in 

some detail. 
Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Lawrence, Kansas, 

1873. 
Ibid., Eighth Amiual Report, 1875. 
Ibid., Ninth Annual Report, 1876. 
Ibid., Eleventh Annual Report, 1878. 
Ibid., Twelfth Annual Report, 1879. 
Ibid., Thirteenth Annual Report, 1880. 
Ibid., Fourteenth Annual Report, 1881. 
Ibid., Fifteenth Annual Report, 1882. 

Ibid., Twentieth Annual Report, 1887. List of classics given. 
Ibid., Twenty-first Annual Report, 1888. 
Ibid., Twenty-second Annual Report, 1889. 
Ibid., Twenty-third Annual Report, 1890. 
Manual of the Lebanon (Indiana) High School, 1909. 
Report of the Lebanon, Indiana, Public Schools for 1894-95 and Course of Study 

Together with Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Schools. 
Course of Study with Rules and Regidations of the Public Schools of Le Roy, Illinois, 

Together with the Names of Alumni and other Items of Interest Concerning the 

Le Roy Public Schools, 1889. 



306 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Public Schools of Le Roy, Illinois, 1894-95, Rules and Regulations, Course of Study 

and Manual of Information. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Lewiston, Illinois, Public Schools, 

1896. 
Course of Study with Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of Lexington, 

Illinois, Together with Names of Alumni, 1892. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education of the Public Schools of Lincoln, Nebraska, 

for the Year 1896-97. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Lincoln, Nebraska, Public Schools, 

1900. 
Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Education by the Superintendent of Public 

Schools of the School District of Lincoln {Nebraska) for the School Year Ending 

June 11, 1880. 
Third Annual Report of the Board of Education of the School District of Lincoln 

(Nebraska) for the School Year Ending June 25, 1875. 
Rules, Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Lodi, Wisconsin, 

Adopted August 30, 1895. 
Report of the School Committee of Lowell, Massachusetts, 1839. 
Ibid., 1840. 
Ibid., 1843. 
Ibid., 1851. 
Ibid., 1852. 
Ibid., 1857. 
First Annual Catalog of the Public Schools of Mackinaw, Illinois, for the Session 

1895. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Macomb, 

Illinois, 1902-3. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education and Superintendent of Schools for the 

Year 1864-65. Department of Public Instruction, City of Madison, Wis- 
consin. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education of Madison (Wisconsin), 1870. List of 

textbooks. 
Ibid., 1869. 
Ibid., 1872. 
Ibid., 1867. 

Ibid., 1884. List of textbooks. 
Ibid., 1885. Historical sketch, 1838-85. 
Annual Report of the City of Madison (Wisconsin), 1895. History from 1858 

to 1895. Historical material. 
Annual Report of the Public Schools of the City of Madison (Wisconsin) for the 

Year 1889-90. List of textbooks. 
Course of Study of the Public Schools of Maquoketa, Iowa, 1896. 

County, Illinois, 1878. List of textbooks. 
Manual and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Marinette, Wisconsin, 1905-6. 
Announcement and Catalog of the Marletle, Michigan, Public Schools, Containing 

Organization, Course of Study and Rules and Regulations for the School Year 

1900-1901. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of St udy of the Marseilles, Illinois, Public Schools, 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 307 

Mason City, Illinois, Public Schools, 1891. 

Annual Report of the Public Schools, Mattoon, Illinois, 1891. Meager details of 

work in composition. 
Course of Studies, Public Schools of McLeansboro, Illinois, 1897. List of text- 
books. 
An Announcement and Course of Study of the Mendon High School at Mendon, 

Adams County, Illinois, 1895. 
Course of Study for the Public Schools of Metropolis, Illinois, 1896-97. 
Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the 

State of Michigan with Accompanying Documents for the Year 1860. Union 

School Reports. 
Ibid., 187-1. Report of City Union Schools. An interesting discussion in this 

report of the decision of the Supreme Court establishing the legal status of 

the high school. 
Ibid., Thirty-ninth Annual Report, 1875. Contains reports of city graded and 

high schools. 
Ibid., Fortieth Annual Report, 1876. Report of city and graded and high schools. 
Ibid., Forty-fourth Annual Report, 1880. Historical sketch relating to secondary 

education. 
Course of Studies, Rules and Regulations of the Miles Public Schools, Miles, Iowa, 

1893. 
Annual Report of the School Board of the City of Milwaukee {Wisconsin) for the 

Year Ending August 31, 1877. 
Ibid., 1878. 
Ibid., 1879. 

Course of Study of the Public Schools of the City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1909. 
Regulations and Rules of the Studies of the Mohomet Graded Schools, Champaign 

County, Illinois, 1878. List of textbooks. 
Course of Study of the Moline (Illinois) High School, 1910-11. Leaflet. 
Twenty-third Annual Report of the Public Schools of Moline, Illinois, 1896. Out- 
line of work in some detail. Manual training discussed. 
Ibid., Twenty-fourth Annual Report, 1897. 
Ibid., Twenty-fifth Annual Report, 1898. 

Sixty-eighth Annual Report of the Public Schools of Monmouth (Illinois), 1912. 
Catalog and Report of the Public Schools of the City of Monticello, Illinois, for the 

Year Ending June 30, 1895. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of Monticello, 

Illinois, 1898. 
Rules and Regulations of the Public Schools of Monticello, Illinois, 1905. 
Course of Study of the Morris (Illinois) High School for the Year 1899-1900. 

Four-page leaflet. 
Morrison Public Schools, Morrison, Illinois. Rules and Regulations and Course 

of Study, 1898. 
Course of Study of the Public Schools of Mount Carroll, Illinois, 1900. 
Manual of the Mount Gilead, Ohio, High School, Containing Rules and Regulations, 

the Revised Course of Study, Catalog of the Graduates and General Information, 

1892. List of textbooks. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Mount Pulaski, 

Illinois, 1900-1901. 



308 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Rules and Regulations and Course of Study, Including a List of Graduates of the 

Mount Sterling (Illinois) Public ScJiools, 1896. 
Manual of the Mount Vernon Public Schools, Mount Vernon, Illinois. Course 

of Study, Rules and Regulations, 1895. Some details of the work in literature. 
Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Murphysboro, Illinois, 1899. 

List of textbooks. 
Eighth Year Book of the Murphysboro (Illinois) Township High School, 1909-10. 
Second Annual Catalog Murphysboro (Illinois) Township High School, 1902-3. 

Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Navarre Union Schools, Navarre, 

Ohio, 1896. 
Course of Study of the Nebraska City-Public Schools, Nebraska City, Nebraska, 

1894. 
Ibid., 1895. Contains details of work in English. 
Course of Study and Rules and Regulations of the Neola Public Schools, Neola, 

Iowa, 1898. 

Annual Report of the Board of Education with Course of Study, etc. Oakland, 

Illinois, 1897. 
Revised Course of Study with Rules and Regulations of the Odell (Illinois) Public 

Schools, 1889. 
Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Public Schools of Olney, Illinois, for the Year 

Ending July 1, 1893. Financial and statistical report and course of study. 
Ibid., Twenty-eighth Annual Report, 1895. List of textbooks. 
Ibid., Tenth Annual Report, 1897. 

Manual and Annual Report of the Oskaloosa, Iowa, Schools, 1896. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Oskaloosa, 

Iowa, 1876. 
Ibid., 1880. Contains list of textbooks. 

Annual Report of the Controllers of the Public Schools of the City of Philadelphia 

(Pennsylvania) , 1837. 
Ibid., 18-40. 
Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Piper City, Illinois, 1894. 

Annual Report of the Public Schools of Richmond (Indiana) for the School Year 
Ending May 2S, 1875 with Courses of Study and General Rules and Regulations. 

Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Public Schools of Richmond, Indiana, 
to the Board of Education for the Year Ending June 7, 1S82. List of textbooks. 

Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Richmond (Indiatia) Public Schools for 
the Year Ending June 20, 1879, with Course of Study and Rules and Regula- 
tions. 

Ibid., 1880. 

Biennial Report of the Public Schools of Richmond, Indiana, for the Years Ending 
July 31, 1890 and July 31, 1891 with Announcements for 1891-92 and Rules 
and Regulations and Course of Study. 

Ibid., 1886-88. 

Ibid., 1888-89. List of classics given. List of textbooks. Historical sketch of 
the schools. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 309 

Catalog of the Officers and Teachers of the Public Schools of the City of Richmond, 
Indiana, and the Pupils of the High School and Grammar Schools. Rules and 
Regulations for the Organization and Government of the Schools; and the Super- 
intendent's Report for the Year Ending August 31, 1870. Aims and purposes 
of the high school discussed. 

Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Public Schools of Shenandoah, 
Iowa, with Course of Study and Announcements for 1894-95. List of text- 
textbooks. 

Report Board of Education, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1853. 

Ibid., 1855. 

Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Public Schools of Springfield (Illinois) for the 
Year Ending August 31, 1887. 

Ibid., Thirty-fourth Annual Report, 1892. Aims and purposes of the high school 
discussed. Outline of work in English. 

Ibid., Thirty-sixth Annual Report. Outline of work in English. Manual 
training discussed. Discussion of influence of report of Committee of Ten. 

Thirteenth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools of Springfield 
{Illinois) to the Board of Education, 1871. 

Ibid., Fourteenth Annual Report, 1872. List of textbooks. 

Ibid., 1873. List of textbooks. 

Ibid., 1874. 

Ibid., 1876. 

Ibid., 1877. 

Ibid., 1878. 

Ibid., 1879. 

Fifty-ninth Annual Report Springfield (Missouri) Public Schools, 1906-7. 

Sterling (Illinois) Tozvnship High School, 1909-10. 

Thirteenth .Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis (Missouri) Public 
Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1867. Historical sketch, pp. 98-114. 
An interesting review of the controversy regarding the establishment of a high 
school. 

Ibid., Twenty-fourth Annual Report, 1878. 

Fifteenth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the St. Louis (Missouri) 
Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1869. 

Fifty-third Annual Report of the Board of Education, St. Louis, Missouri, 1917. 

Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the President and Board of Directors of the St. 
Louis (Missouri) Public Schools for the Year Ending August 31, 188 1. 

Ibid., Twenty-ninth Annual Report, 1883. 

Ibid., Thirty-first Annual Report, 1885. 

Thirty-second Annual Report, St. Louis, June 30, 1886. 

Thirty-third Annual Report, St. Louis, June 30, 1887. 

Thirty-fourth Annual Report, St. Louis, June 30, 1888. 

The Streator Township High School, Streator, Illinois, 1896-97. 

Ibid., 1899-1900. 

Streator (Illinois) Township High School, 1906-7. 

Announcement of the Taylorville (Illinois) Township High School, 1891. Leaflet. 
Catalog and Annual Announcement of the Taylorville (Illinois) Township High 
School, 1896. 



310 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Catalog and Fourth Annual Announcement of the Taylorville (Illinois) Township 

High School, 1894. 
Regulations and Course of Instruction of the Tipton, Ohio, Public Schools. Adopted 

August 9, 1892. List of textbooks. 

Course of Study of the Watertown, South Dakota High School, 1911. Typewritten 

copy. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study for Use in the Public Schools of Wheaton, 

Illinois, 1895. List of textbooks. 
Course of Study of the Wilmette, Illinois, Public Schools, 1898. 
Rules and Regulations and Course of Study of the Public Schools of Wilton, Iowa, 

1880. 

Ypsilanti High School Annual Catalog, Ypsilanti, Michigan, 1905. 

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY CATALOGS 

The Catalogs of the following universities and colleges furnish information 
concerning entrance requirements. 
Butler University (Indiana), 1892-94. 
Cornell College (Iowa), 1860-1900. 
DePauw University (Indiana), 1890-1900. 
Earlham College (Indiana), 1891-94. 
University of Illinois, 1867-90. 
University of Indiana, 1890-1900. 
University of Wooster (Ohio), 1870-75, 1880, 1885-87, 1890, 1894. 

IV 

Textbooks constitute the chief source of information for discussions and 
conclusions in Part II and in the section of Part III devoted to subject-matter. 

1. MATHEMATICS 

Breslich, Ernst R. First-Year Mathettiatics for Secondary Schools, 1915 (1906- 

1909); Second-Year Mathematics for Secondary Schools, 1916 {\91Q); Third, 

Year Mathematics for Secondary Schools, 1917. 
Davies, Charles. Elementary Algebra, Embracing the First Principles of the 

Science, 1853. 
Davies, Charles. Elements of Geometry, 1862, 1875. 
Davies, Charles. Elements of Geometry and Trigonometry from the Works of 

A. M. Le Getidre, 1862. 
Evans, G. W., and Marsh, J. A. First Year Mathematics, 1916. 
Fish, Daniel W. The Complete Arithmetic, 1874. 
Greenleaf, Benjamin. Introduction to the National Arithmetic on the Inductive 

System, 1868. 
Loomis, Elias. A Treatise on Arithmetic, Theoretical and Practical, 1856. 
Loomis, Elias. Elements of Algebra, Designed for Beginners, 1856. 
Milne, William J. A Practical Arithmetic on the Inductive Plan, Including Oral 

and Written Exercises, 1877. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 311 

Ray, Joseph. Ray's Higher Arithmetic: The Principles of Arithmetic Analyzed 
and Practically Applied. 1858. For advanced students. 

Robinson, H. W. New Elementary Algebra, Containing the Rudiments of the 
Science for Schools and Colleges, 1859. 

Robinson, H. W. The Practical High Arithmetic for Schools, Academies and Mer- 
cantile Colleges Combining the Analytic and Synthetic Methods and Forming a 
Complete Treatise on Arithmetical Science and Application and Its Commercial 
and Business Application, 1863. 

Schuyler, A. A Complete Algebra for High Schools and Colleges, 1870, 1883. 

Stoddard, J. F. Stoddard's Complete Arithmetic Being the New and Practical 
Arithmetic of the Series, with Editions for a Full and Practical Course in High 
Schools and Academies: Embracing an Explanation and Application of the 
Metric System of Weights and Measures, Forms of Bills, Notes, Accounts, 
etc., 1868. 

Tappin, Eli T. Treatise of Geometry and Trigonometry. Written for the Mathemat- 
ical Course of Joseph Ray, 1868. 

Wells, Webster. Essentials of Algebra, 1897. 

Wells, Webster. Essentials of Plane and Solid Geometry, 1898. 

Wentworth, G. A. New School Algebra, 1898. 

Wentworth, G. A. Plane and Solid Geometry, 1899. 

Wentworth, G. A., Smith, D. E., and Brown, J. C. Junior High School Mathe- 
matics. Books I, II, III, 1917, 1918. 

2. ENGLISH 
Appleton's Fifth Reader. 
Bachus, F. J. Shaw's New History of English and American Literature. Revised 

and rewritten, 1875. 
Bain, Alexander. English Composition and Rhetoric. 1866. 
Brubaker, A. R., and Snyder, Dorothy. High School English. Books I and II, 

1910. 
Buhlig, Rose. Business English, 1914. 
Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. J., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English, in the 

Elementary and the Secondary School, 1903. 
Cathcart, G. R. Literary Reader: Typical Selections from Some of the Best 

English and American Authors from Shakespeare to the Present Time, 1875. 
Clark, Stephen W. A Normal Grammar Analytic and Synthetic, Illustrated by 

diagrams, 1870. 
Cleveland, Charles D. A Compendium of American Literature Chronologically 

Arranged with Biographical Sketches of the Authors and Selections from Their 

Works, 1859. (Stereotyped edition, 1879.) 
Cleveland, Charles D. A Compendium of English Literature Characterized and 

Arranged from Sir John Mondeville to William Cowper Consisting of Biographi- 
cal Sketches of the Authors, Selections from Their Works with Notes, etc., 1848. 

(Stereotyped edition, 1874.) 
Frank, Maude M. Elements of High School English, 1915. 
Greene, Samuel S. A Grammar of the English Language Adapted to the Use of 

Schools and Academies, 1860. 
Halleck, Rueben Post. A History of English Literature, 1913. 



312 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Halleck, Reuben Post. New English Literature, 1913. 

Hart, John S. A Manual oj English Literature: A Textbook for Schools and 
Colleges, 1872. 

Herrick and Damon. Cornposition and Rhetoric for Schools, 1899. 

Hill, Adam S. Principles of Rhetoric and Their Application, 1879. 

Hill, David J. Elements of Rhetoric and Composition, 1878. 

Kellogg, Brainerd. A Textbook on Rhetoric Supplementing and Developing All the 
Senses with Exhaustive Practice, 1880, 1892. 

Martin, Benjamin. Choice Specimens of American Literature and Literary Reader, 
1874. 

McGuffey's Sixth Elective Reader, Revised Edition, 1879. 

Moody, W. v., and Lovett, R. M. A History of English Literature. 1913. 

National Speaker, 1853. 

Newcomer, Alfonso. A Practical Course in English Composition, 1893. 

Newcomer, Alfonso. English Literature, 1905. 

Pancoast, H. S. and Shelly, P. V. D. First Book in English Literature, 1910. 

Parker's Exercises in Rhetorical Readings, 1852. 

Proceedings North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools: Report 
of the Commission on Units and Curricula, 1917. 

Progressive Speaker and School Reader, 1858. 

Rankin, T. E., and Aiken, W. A. English Literatim, 1917. 

Reed, Alonso, and Kellogg, Brainerd. Higher Lessons in English — A Work of 
Englisli Grammar in which the Science of the Language is Made Tributary 
to the Art of Expression, 1877, 1885, 1896. 

Saunders, Charles W. Saunder's Rhetorical and Union Sixth Reader Embracing 
Full Exposition of the Principles of Rhetorical Reading with Numerous Speci- 
mens Both in Prose and Poetry from the Best Writers, English and American, 
as Exercises for Practice, and with Notes and Sketches, Literary and Biographi- 
cal, Forming a Brief Though Comprehensive Course in English Literature, 
1862. 

Scott, F. N., and Denney, Joseph. New Composition and Rhetoric, 1911. 

Spaulding, William. The History of English Literature with an Outline of the 
Origin and Growth of the English Language, Illustrated by Extracts. For 
Use of School and Private Students, 1853. 

Standard Fifth Reader, 1857. 

Swinton, William. A General Etymology and Syntax of the English Language, 
1874. 

The Student's Reader, 1877. 

Webster, W. F. English for Secondary Schools, 1910. 

Welch, A. S. Analysis of the English Sentence, Designed for Advanced Classes in 
English Grammar, 1862. 

Whateley, Richard, Elements of Rhetorical Composition. 

3. GENERAL SCIENCE 
Barber, F. D., Fuller, M. L., Prosser, J. L., and Adonis, H. W. First Book in 

General Science, 1916. 
Caldwell, O. W., and Eikenberry, W. L. Elements of General Science, 1914. 
Clark, Bertha M. An Introduction to Science, 1915. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 313 

Elhuff, Lewis. General Science. First Course, 1916. 
Hessler, John C. The First Year of Science, 1914. 
Pease, Clara A. A First Year Course in General Science, 1915. 
Snyder, William H. First Year Science, 1914. 

Weckell, Ada L. and Thalman, Joseph L. A Year in Science: A Textbook for 
First Year in High Schools, 1916. 

4. THE BIOLOGIC.^.L SCIENCES 
Bergen, J. Y. Elements of Botany, 1896. 
Bergen, J. Y. and Caldwell, O. W. Practical Botany, 1913. 
Boyer, E. R. A Laboratory Manual in Elementary Biology. An Inductive Study 

in Animal and Plant Morphology Designed for Preparatory and High Schools, 

1894. 
Brown, Eli. The Eclectic Physiology, 1884. 

Colton, B. P. An Elementary Course in Practical Zoology, 1886. 
Cutter, John S. Comprehensive Physiology, Anatomy and Hygiene, 1885. 
Gray, Asa. How Plants Grow. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany with 

Popular Flora; or an Arrangement and Description of Common Plants both 

Wild and Cultivated, 1858. 
Higner, R. \V. Practical Zoology, 1915. 

Hitchcock, Edward, and Hitchcock, Edward Jr., Elementary Physiology, 1866. 
Hooker, Washington. Natural History for the Use of Schools and Families, 1860. 
Hunter, G. W. Laboratory Problems in Civic Biology, 1916. 
Hutchinson, J. C. A Treatise on Physiology and Hygiene. For Educational 

Institutions and General Readers, 1875, 1895. 
Kellogg, V. L., and Doane, R. W. Elementary Textbook of Economical Zoology 

and Entomology, 1915. 
Martin, H. N. The Human Body. A Text-Book of Anatomy, Physiology and 

Hygiene, Including a Special Account of the Action upon the Body of Alcoholic 

and Other Stimulants and Narcotics, 1884. 
McBride, T. H. Lessons in Elementary Botany for Secondary Schools, 1895. 
Packard, A. S. Zoology, Sixth Revised Edition, 1883. 
Steele, J. Dorman. Hygienic Physiology with Special Reference to the Use of 

Alcoholic Drinks and Narcotics, Being a Revised Edition of the Fourteen Works 

in Human Physiology, 1868. Abridged editions, 1872, 1884. 
Steele, J. Dorman, and Jenks, J. W. P. A Popular Zoology, 1887. 
Ware, John. Philosophy of Natural History, 1860. 
Youmons, Eliza A. The First Book of Botany. Designed to Cultivate the Observing 

Powers of Children, 1870. 

5. THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 
Allyn, Lewis B. Elements of Applied Chemistry, 1912. 
Appleton's School Physics, 1891. 

Block, Henry, and Davis, H. B. Practical Physics for Secondary Schools, 1913. 
Bowman, John. An Introduction to Practical Chemistry Including Analysis, 1873. 
Carhart, H. C. and Chute, H. N. Physics for High School Students, 1901. 
Carhart, H. C. and Chute, H. N. Principles of Physics, 1912. 
Comstock, J. L. A System of Natural Philosophy, 1840. 



314 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Comstock, J. L. Elements of Chemistry: Designed for the Use of Schools and 
Academies, 1861. 

Cook, C. G. Practical Chemistry for High School Students, 1913. 

Cooley, LeRoy C. A Text-Book of Chemistry. A Modern and Systematic Explana- 
tion of the Elementary Principles of the Science. Adopted to Use in High 
Schools and Academies, 1869. 

Cooley, LeRoy C. Natural Philosophy for Common and High Schools, 1872. 

Gage, A. P. Introduction to Physical Science, 1887. 

Greene, William H. Lessons in Chemistry, 1884. 

Hooker's Chemistry, 1863. 

Irwin, F. C, Rivett, B. J. and Tatlock, O. Elementary and Applied Chemistry, 
1915. 

Lynde, C. J. Physics for the Household, 1914. 

Mann, C. R. and Twiss, G. R. Physics. Revised Edition, 1910. 

McPherson, William, and Henderson, W. E. First Course in Chemistry, 1915. 

Plympton, G. W. Parker's Philosophy. Revised, 1871. 

Reed, J. O. and Henderson, W. B. High School Physics, 1913. 

Remsen, Ira. Elements of Chemistry. A Text-Book for Beginners, IS8T. 

Rolfe and Gillette. A Text-Book of Natural Philosophy, 1868. 

Snell, J. F. Elements of Household Chemistry, 1914. 

Steele, J. Dorman. A Fourteen Weeks Course in Chemistry, 1867. 

Steele, J. Dorman. Fourteen Weeks in Natural Philosophy, 1878. 

Steele, J. Dorman. Popular Physics. 

6. THE EARTH SCIENCES 

Appleton's Physical Geography. Prepared on a New and Original Plan, 1887. 
Brocklesby, John. Elements of Physical Geography with a Treatise on the Physical 

Phenomena of the United States. Mitchell's Series, 1867. 
Dana, J. D. A Text-Book of Geology Designed for Schools and Academies. Revised 

Edition, 1874. 
Dana, J. D. Revised Text-Book of Geology, Fourth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 

Edited by William N. Rice, 1897. 
Davis, W. M. and Snyder W. H. Physical Geography, 1898. 
Geike, Archibald. Class-Book of Geology, 1890. 
Guyat, Arnold. Physical Geography, 1873. 
Hinman, Russell, Eclectic Physical Geography, 1888. 
Hitchcock, Edward, and Hitchcock, Edward H. Elementary Geology. New edition. 

1860. 
Houston, Edwin J. Elements of Physical Geography for the Use of of Schools, 

Academies and Colleges, 1875. 
Nicholson, H. A. Text-Book of Geology for Schools and Colleges, 1871. 
Norton, William H. Elements of Geology, 190S. 

THE SOCIAL STUDIES 

Alden, Joseph. The Science of Government in Connection with American Institu- 
tions, 1866. 

Allen, W. F., and Myers, P. V. N. Ancient History for Colleges and High Schools, 
1888. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 315 

Anderson, John J. New Mayiual of General History with Particular Attention to 
Ancient and Modern Civilization with Numerous Maps and Engravings. For 
the Use of Colleges, High Schools, Academies, etc., 1882. 

Andrews, Israel W. Manual of the Constitution of the United States Designed for 
the Instruction of the American Youth in the Duties, Rights and Obligations 
of Citizenship, 1864. 

Ashley, Roscoe L. Ancient Civilization, 1915. Medieval Civilizatioti, 1915. 
Modern European Civilization, 1918. American Government for Use in 
Secondary Schools, 1910. The New Civics, 1918. 

Barnes' One Term History. A Brief History of the United States, 1871, 1880, 1881. 

Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary R. American Citizenship, 1914. 

Bullock, Charles J. Introduction to the Study of Economics, 1897. 

Burch, Henry R., and Patterson, S. H. American Social Problems: An Introduc- 
tion to the Study of Society, 1918. 

Champlin, J. T. Lessons on Political Economy Designed as a Basis for Instruction 
in that Science in Schools and Colleges, 1868. 

Chorning, Edward. A Student's History of the United States. Third re\'i3ed edi- 
tion, 1913. 

Clark, S. S. The Government. What It Is. What It Does, 1902. 

Dale, Charles F. The American Citizen, 1891. 

Eggleston, Edward. A History of the United States and Its People for the Use of 
Schools, 1884. 

Ely, Richard T. Outlines of Economics, 1893. 

Fish, George P. A Brief History of the Nations and Their Progress and Civiliza- 
tion, 1896. 

Goodrich, S. C. Ancient History from the Creation to the Fall of Rome, 1848. 

Guitteau, William B. Preparation for Citizenship, 1914. 

Herrick, C. A. History of Commerce and Industry, 1917. 

Jones, J. A. and Sanford, A. H. American History, 1909. Government in State 
and Nati»n, 1910. 

Knowlton, D. C. and Howe, S. B. Essentials in Modern European History, 1917. 

Martin, G. H. A Text-Book on the Civil Government in the United Slates, 1875. 

McCleary, J. T. Studies in Cii'ics, 1888. 

McLaughlin, A. C. History of the American Nation, 1913. Readings in the History 
of the American Nation, 1914. 

Montgomery, D. H. The Student's American History, 1897. 

Montgomery, D. H. The Student's American History. Revised edition, 1913. 

Morey, W. C. Ancient Peoples: A Revision of Morey's "Outlines of Ancient 
History," 1915. 

Mussey, D. M. American History, 1911. 

Myers, P. V. N. Outlines of Medieval and Modern History for High Schools, 
Seminaries, and Colleges, 1885. A General History for High Schools and 
Colleges, 1889. Ancient History. Second revised edition, 1916. 

Quackenbos, J. D. Illustrated School History of the World from the Earliest Ages 
to the Present Time Accompanied with Numerous Maps and Engravings, 1879. 

Ridpath, J. C. History of t!ie United States Prepared on a New and Compre'nensive 
Plan Embracing the Features of Lyman's Historical Cluirl. 



316 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Scott, Edward B. A School History of the United States from the Discovery of 
America to the Year 1870, 1870. 

Scudder, Horace E. A History of the United States of America with an Introduc- 
tion Narrating the Discovery and Settlement of North America, 1897. 

Sheldon, Mary D. Studies in General History. Student's Edition. 1885. 

Smith, J. R. Commerce and Industry, 1916. 

Steele, J. Dorman, and Steele, Esther B. A Brief History of Ancient, Medieval and 
Modern Peoples with Some Account of Their Movements, Institutions, Arts, 
Manners and Customs, 1883. 

Swinton, William. Outlines of the World's History, Ancient, Medieval and Modern 
with Special Reference to the History of Civilization and the Progress of Man- 
kind. 1874. 

Thalheimer, B. M. E. The Eclectic History of the United States, 1881. 

Thompson, J. M. History of the United Slates: Political, Industrial, Social, 1915. 

Thurston, Henry W. Economic and Industrial History for Secondary .Schools, 
1899. 

Towne, Ezra T. Social Problems: A Study of Present Day Social Conditions, 
1916. 

Townsend, Calvin. Analysis of Civil Government, Including a Topical and Tabu- 
lar Arrangement of the Constitution of the United States. Designed as a Class- 
Book for the Use of Grammar, High and Normal Schools, and Other Institu ions 
of Learning, 1869. 

Walker, F. A. Political Economy, 1884. 

Wayland, Francis. The Elements of Political Economy, 1841. The Elements of 
Political Economy, Recast by A. L. Chapin, 1878. 

Webster, W. C. A General History of Commerce, 1903. 

Webster, Hutton. Ancient History, 1913. 

West, William M. The Ancient World from the Earliest Time to SOO A.D. Re- 
vised edition, 1917. 

Willard, Emma. Universal History in Perspective. Divided into Three Parts — 
Ancient, Middle and Modern, 1865. 

8. LATIN 

Allen, W. Ford, Allen J. H. Allen's Latin Lessons. 

Andrews, E. A. First Lessons in Latin, or an Introduction to Andrews and Stod- 
dard's Latin Grammar, 1853. 

Collar, W. C. and Daniell, M. G. First Year Latin, 1901. 

Collar, W. C. and Daniell, M. G. The Beginner's Latin Book, 1886. 

Jones, Elisha. First Lessons in Latin; Adapted to the Latin Grammars of Allen 
and Greenough, Andrews and Stoddard, Bartholomew, Buillow and Morris, 
Cildersleeve and Harkness, and Prepared as an Introduction to Caesar's 
Commentaries on the Gallic War, 1877. 

Pearson, Henry C. Essentials of Latin, 1905. Revised 1911, 1912, 1915. 

Scott, Harry F. First Latin Book for Junior High Schools, 1918. 

Smith, M. L. Latin Lessons, 1913. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Algebra 

Extension of time devoted to, 120. 
Authors 

Biographies of, 133-4. 
Biblical Antiquities, 74. 
Biology 

Practical character of, 149. 
Bookkeeping, 74. 
Boston English School, 6. 
Boston Latin Grammar School, 4. 
Boston School Committee 

Regulations of, 2-3. 
Botany 

New types of textbooks in, 240. 

Points of view in teaching, 152-3, 
156. 
Butler's Analogy, 74. 

Chemistry 

Laboratory work in, 166-7. 

New types of textbooks in, 238-9. 

Points of view in teaching, 166. 
Civics 

Early texts, 181-3. 

New types of textbooks in, 245-7. 

Points of view in teaching, 181, 184. 
Civil Government (See Civics) 
Classical Antiquities, 74. 
Classical "Department," 249. 
Classics 

Lists of, 137-40. 

Methods of teaching, 140. 

Restricted use of, 141. 

Selections in common use, 137. 
Commercial Law, 74. 
Composition 

Relation of, to Grammar, 144. 

Relation of, to Literature, 145. 

Relation of, to Rhetoric, 144. 



Courses of Study (See Curricula) 
Curricula 

Aims of, 50. 

Comparison of, 17-18. 

Confusion in aims of, 51. 

English and Classical. 
Distinction between, 54. 

Hyphenated titles, 54. 

Junior High School, 199-202. 

Lack of meaning of titles, 51. 

Lack of uniformity in, 45. 

Multiplication of, 52. 

Number of, 46-50, 203-6. 

Organization of, 50-6, 207. 

Parallel, 52. 

Representative curricula, 2, 3, 4, 6, 
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20-45, 
199,200,201,202,208-216. 

Subjects included in, 62-8, 217, 218. 

Titles of, 46-50, 203-6. 

Significance of, 207. 

Units of time, 61. 

Declamations, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 

34, 131. 
Drawing, 26, 41, 42. 

Economics 

Early texts, 187-8. 

Points of view in teaching, 186-7. 
Elocution, 31. 
English 

College entrance requirements in, 
134-7. 

Important changes in, 123^. 

New types of textbooks in, 231-5. 

Traditional divisions of, 233. 

Uses of term, 53. 
English Classical School, 1. 
English Course, Boston School, 6. 
English "Department," 249. 



319 



320 



INDEX 



Essay writing, 22. 
Ethics, 74. 

Foreign Languages 

Relative importance of, 79. 

General Science 

Textbooks in, 236-8. 
Geology 

Decline in importance of, 168. 

Points of view in teaching, 169. 
Geometry 

Extension of time devoted to, 121. 
Grammar 

Use of diagrams, 125. 

High School 

Aims of, 14. 

Boston High School, 1. 

Lowell High School, 5-8. 

Report of Boston Committee, 1-4. 

School for girls, 4. 
History, Ancient 

Changes in character of subject mat- 
ter, 175. 

Early texts, 175-6. 

Time devoted to, 174. 
History, European 

New types of textbooks in, 242-3. 
History, United States 

Character of subject matter, 179-80. 

Early texts, 179-80. 

New types of textbooks in, 244. 

Time devoted to, 179. 

Industrial Education 
Opposition to, 55. 
Influence of early schools, 16-17. 
Intellectual Philosophy, 22. 

Junior College, 198. 
Junior High School, 197-8. 

Curricula organization in, 202-4. 

Lack of standardization of, 197-8. 

Literary exercises, 27, 143. 



Literature 

Increasing importance of, 77. 

Points of view in teaching, 130, 132, 
134. 
Logic, 22. 

Manual Training, 194-6. 
Mathematics 

Changes in subject matter, 229. 

New movement in teaching, 230. 

New types of textbooks in, 229-30. 
Mental Philosophy, 74. 
Miscellaneous subjects 

Relative importance of, 79. 
Moral Philosophy, 74. 
Moral Science, 21. 
Music, 22, 26, 34. 

Natural Philosophy (See Physics) 

Natural Theology, 74. 

New Haven, Conn. High School, 8. 

Optional subjects, 34, 51. 

Pedagogy, 74. 

Philadelphia, Pa. High School, 10. 

Physical Education, 23, 199, 200-1, 

213-6. 
Physical Geography 

Points of view in teaching, 170. 
Physics 

Laboratory work in, 164-6. 

New types of textbooks in, 238-9. 

Points of view in teaching, 160. 
Physiology 

Points of view in teaching, 158. 
Political Economy (See Economics) 
Psychology, 74. 

Reading, 23, 25, 26, 130-3. 
Reading texts, 130-3. 
Rhetoric 

Points of view in teaching, 126-7. 
Rhetoricals, 29. 



INDEX 



321 



Schools 

Changes in curricula of individual, 

112-6. 
Individual differences in, 111, 112. 
Influence of locality of, 110, 111. 
Influence of size of, 109, 1 10. 

Science 

Aims in teaching 

Disciplinary aim, 148. 

Knowledge aim, 148. 

Religious aim, 148. 
New types of textbooks in, 236-42. 

Science subjects 

Relative importance of, 77. 

Secondary education 

Extension in scope of, 197. 

Semester plan, 61. 

Sequence of subjects 

Commercial subjects, 60. 

English, 56. 

Foreign Language, 60. 

Mathematics, 56. 

Science, 57-9. 

Social studies, 59-60. 

Social Studies 

New types of te.\tbooks in, 242-7. 

Relative importance of, 78. 
Spelling, 23, 27. 

Spread of high school movement, 16. 
Springfield, Mass. High School, 7. 
Subjects 

Commercial Arithmetic, 193. 

Composition 

Increase in importance of, 76. 

Constants and variables, 71-8, 220- 
3. 

Elective, 106-8, 223-6. 

Lack of uniformity in time, 109. 

Mathematics 

Uniformity in, 45. 

Order of in curricula, 56-60. 

Range of, 68-70. 

Required, 106-8, 223-6. 

Rhetoric 

Decline in importance of, 77. 



Variations in time devoted to, 80- 
108. 

Subject matter 

Commercial subjects, 193. 
English, 123-46, 231-5. 

Composition, 142-8, 233-5. 

Grammar, 124-6. 

Literature, 129-43, 232-5. 

Rhetoric, 126-9. 

Unified, 231. 
Fine and Practical Arts, 74, 221. 
Foreign language 

German, 192. 

Greek, 190. 

Latin, 191-2, 247. 
History of Commerce, 242. 
Industrial Subjects, 194-6. 
Mathematics, 118-22, 228-31. 

Algebra, 120, 121, 229. 

Arithmetic, 118-20, 228, 229. 

Geometry, 121, 231. 

Unified, 229, 230. 

Science, 147-73. 
Botany, 152-7. 
Chemistry, 166-8, 239. 
Geology, 168-9, 241. 
Natural History, 148-50. 
Physical Geography, 170-3, 241. 
Physics, 161-6, 239-40. 
Physiology, 157-60, 241. 
Zoology, 150-2, 241. 

Social Studies 

Civics, 181-6, 245-6. 
Economics, 186-9. 
History, 174-81, 242-5. 

Terminology 

Lack of uniformity in, 250-1. 

Term plan, 61. 

Theme writing, 29. 

Writing, 24. 

Zoology 

New types of textbooks in, 241. 
Points of view in teaching, 150-2. 



322 INDEX 



TABLES 

I, XXVIII— Curricula titles, 46-50, 203-6. 

II-IX, XXIX, XXX— Subjects included in curricula, 62-8, 217-8. 

X, XXXI— Constants and variables, 71^, 220-1. 

XI-XVIII — Variations in time devoted to fields and subjects, 80-90. 

XIX — Time devoted to fields, maximum, mode, minimum, average, 90-91. 

XX-XXVII — Time devoted to subjects, maximum, mode, minimum, 
average, 92-99. 

A-J — Names of towns and cities, lengths of courses, dates of courses, 
length of time devoted to fields and subjects, Appendix. 



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